Sistema De Comercio Alternativo En La India

Energía para el Crecimiento Económico Energía para el Crecimiento Económico Energy Vision Update 2012 Prefacio: Energía: El Oxígeno de la Economía Peter Voser Director Ejecutivo, Royal Dutch Shell, Líder de la Comunidad de Energía de Países Bajos 2011, Foro Económico Mundial. El mundo se ha recuperado de la crisis financiera con repercusiones que se han sentido en toda la economía real sobre la producción, el consumo, el empleo y el bienestar. En momentos como estos, todos nos recuerdan lo entrelazadas que están nuestras perspectivas de futuro y nos hemos visto obligadas a reflexionar sobre cómo la historia nos ha llevado a nuestras circunstancias actuales. El progreso económico de las décadas pasadas ha visto a cientos de millones de personas disfrutar de mejoras importantes en su bienestar material, y estos cambios han sido particularmente notables en las economías emergentes. Todos entendemos cómo la mundialización y la liberalización de los mercados han respaldado estos acontecimientos, pero no debemos perder de vista el papel decisivo crucial que desempeña el sector energético. Sin el calor, la luz y el poder no se puede construir o ejecutar las fábricas y las ciudades que proporcionan bienes, trabajos y hogares, ni disfrutar de las comodidades que hacen la vida más cómoda y agradable. La energía es el oxígeno de la economía y la sangre vital del crecimiento, particularmente en la fase de industrialización masiva que los gigantes económicos emergentes están enfrentando hoy, ya que su PIB per cápita se mueve entre aproximadamente US 5.000 y US $ 15.000. En tiempos de turbulencia económica, el enfoque recae muy bien en los empleos. La industria de la energía es conocida por ser muy intensiva en capital, pero su impacto sobre el empleo a menudo se olvida. En los Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, el American Petroleum Institute estima que la industria apoya más de nueve millones de empleos directa e indirectamente, lo que representa más de 5 del empleo total del país. En 2009, la industria de la energía apoyó un valor agregado total a la economía nacional de más de US $ 1 billón, representando 7,7 del PIB estadounidense. Más allá de sus contribuciones directas a la economía, la energía también está profundamente ligada a otros sectores de maneras que no son inmediatamente evidentes. Por ejemplo, cada caloría de los alimentos que consumimos requiere un aporte promedio de cinco calorías de combustible fósil, y para los productos de gama alta como la carne de vacuno esto se eleva a un promedio de 80 calorías. El sector de la energía es también el mayor usuario industrial de agua dulce, lo que representa 40 de todos los retiros de agua dulce en los Estados Unidos. La industria de la energía influye significativamente en la vitalidad y sostenibilidad de toda la economía, desde la creación de empleo hasta la eficiencia de los recursos y el medio ambiente. Los factores clave para mantener la salud de este nexo de recursos (energía, alimentos y agua) son la inversión sostenida, el aumento de la eficiencia, la nueva tecnología, la integración a nivel del sistema (por ejemplo, en el desarrollo urbano) y las condiciones reguladoras y sociales de apoyo. Mirando hacia las décadas venideras, este nexo se verá sometido a un enorme estrés, ya que el crecimiento mundial de la población y la prosperidad propulsan la demanda subyacente a un ritmo que superará la capacidad normal de expandir la oferta. Para hacer frente a esta cepa, habrá que combinar una extraordinaria moderación en el crecimiento de la demanda y una extraordinaria aceleración de la producción. Se requerirán formas nuevas y saludables de colaboración que traspasen fronteras tradicionales, incluidas las nacionales, las empresas público-privadas, las industrias interprofesionales y las empresas-cívicas, para abordar estos desafíos. Habrá que desarrollar rápidamente marcos que fomenten la colaboración y sean respetuosos de los diferentes papeles de los diferentes sectores de la sociedad. Aunque es fácil de decir, esto podría resultar difícil de lograr. Estos tipos de estresores económicos podrían llevar a la turbulencia, así como a la volatilidad política. Si los impactos de estos factores de estrés se distribuyen de manera desigual en toda la sociedad, la sospecha, la culpa y un profundo sentimiento de injusticia entre muchas personas podrían seguir. De esto, la hostilidad y la oposición podrían surgir incluso a las inversiones que en última instancia ayudarían a aliviar la tensión en recursos. Por lo tanto, debemos lograr una renovación del profundo contrato social entre la industria y el resto de la sociedad como un telón de fondo fundamental y mutuamente respetuoso para los desarrollos individuales, las inversiones y los servicios. Depende de la industria tomar la iniciativa en este esfuerzo. Nadie lo hará por nosotros. El negocio sólo puede prosperar en una sociedad sana. Ya sea en la industria o en la política, los actores poderosos necesitan hacer que el papel del sector energético y los beneficios de nuestro trabajo sean claros, mientras demuestran que se puede confiar en trabajar juntos a través de los límites para hacer frente a los retos futuros. A cambio, la sociedad en general otorgará una licencia para operar que con demasiada frecuencia falta hoy. Resumen Ejecutivo A medida que el mundo se esfuerza por salir de una recesión global y de una crisis financiera, los países están buscando soluciones para mejorar el desempeño económico interno y poner a la gente de vuelta al trabajo. La demanda y los precios mundiales de energía han sido resistentes durante la recesión, lo que ha llevado a los responsables políticos de los países con potencial para producir energía a considerar ese sector como un motor potencial para el crecimiento económico. El sector de la energía constituye una participación relativamente modesta del PIB en la mayoría de los países, excepto en aquellos en los que los ingresos por petróleo y gas son grandes. Sin embargo, el impacto del sector energético sobre la economía es mayor que la suma de sus partes. Lo más importante es que la energía es un insumo para casi todos los bienes y servicios de la economía. Por esta razón, precios de energía estables y razonables son beneficiosos para reavivar, sostener y expandir el crecimiento económico. Sus amplias redes de proveedores y el efecto multiplicador resultante también impulsan la influencia de los sectores energéticos sobre el crecimiento económico. La mano de obra bien remunerada, la mano de obra calificada y el alto gasto de capital fluyen a través de la economía, creando empleos y estimulando el crecimiento en sectores aparentemente no relacionados. Al mismo tiempo, la capacidad de un país para capitalizar las redes de proveedores y el efecto multiplicador depende de las capacidades de los mercados laborales e industriales locales. Muchos países ricos en recursos se esfuerzan por maximizar los beneficios económicos de sus recursos alentando el crecimiento de industrias relacionadas. Por todas estas razones, el sector de la energía puede aportar una importante contribución a la recuperación de la crisis mundial. Por ejemplo, la industria del petróleo y del gas en los Estados Unidos es un importante punto brillante en una economía que sigue luchando por encontrar su pie. El sector de extracción de petróleo y gas de Estados Unidos creció a una tasa de 4,5 en 2011, en comparación con la tasa de crecimiento del PIB general de 1,7. Los avances tecnológicos en la extracción de petróleo y gas han llevado a aumentos notables en el empleo en los Estados Unidos. Asimismo, las innovaciones en energías renovables en el sector eléctrico han contribuido a la generación de empleo, aunque los multiplicadores en ese sector son altamente sensibles a la naturaleza de las redes nacionales de proveedores. Sin embargo, equilibrar los precios de la energía, la seguridad energética y el medio ambiente requiere equilibrios entre la creación de empleo y la productividad general en el sector energético. Aunque el historial de manejo de recursos naturales para promover el desarrollo económico es mixto, varios países lo han hecho con gran éxito. Las zonas con menos recursos naturales también se centran en el sector de la energía como un potencial impulsor del crecimiento económico. El suministro de energía estable y confiable es crucial para el crecimiento de las economías en desarrollo y emergentes. Corea del Sur, China e India están fomentando el espíritu empresarial y la innovación tecnológica en sectores no tradicionales de la energía como otra vía para promover el desarrollo de sus economías en rápido crecimiento. Específicamente, están proporcionando incentivos para la producción eólica y solar, alentando empresas conjuntas y transferencias de tecnología y proporcionando gasto de investigación y desarrollo (RampD) para alentar estos esfuerzos. Muchas economías desarrolladas también están tratando de expandir su capacidad de energía renovable para estar a la vanguardia de este creciente sector y para alcanzar metas de sostenibilidad. La energía puede indudablemente ser un motor del crecimiento económico, pero ¿cómo pueden los gobiernos promulgar políticas que lo alientan? Los gobiernos generalmente se enfocan en los precios, la seguridad del suministro y la protección del medio ambiente al considerar la política energética. Los objetivos agregados de creación de empleo y crecimiento económico pueden ser desafiantes. Maximizar el empleo directo en el sector de la energía puede no ser el objetivo correcto si aumenta los precios de la energía y disminuye la productividad general de la industria. En su lugar, centrarse en cómo las decisiones de energía contribuyen a la economía en general, no sólo la contribución económica directa de la industria, es más probable que maximizar el bienestar. La industria contribuye al crecimiento económico y la creación de empleo, en algunos países en gran medida. Pero en la mayoría de los países, su posición como el alma de la economía moderna empequeñece los efectos directos. Introducción La energía es el elemento vital de la economía global, un insumo crucial para casi todos los bienes y servicios del mundo moderno. Un suministro de energía estable y con precios razonables es fundamental para mantener y mejorar el nivel de vida de miles de millones de personas. Como Peter Voser explica en su mensaje de apertura a este informe, Energía: El Oxígeno de la Economía, Sin calor, luz y poder, no se puede construir o dirigir las fábricas y ciudades que proporcionan bienes, trabajos y hogares, ni disfrutar de las comodidades que hacen la vida Más cómodo y agradable. La recesión global y la crisis financiera que comenzó en 2008 traen un nuevo enfoque a las decisiones sobre energía. Muchas partes del mundo desarrollado siguen enfrentando un lento crecimiento económico y los riesgos derivados de las crisis financieras. Como Zhang Guobao describe en su contribución, Pensamientos sobre la Energía y la Economía Mundial, algunos problemas profundamente arraigados aún no se han abordado. Las instituciones financieras bajaron sus previsiones para el crecimiento económico mundial, impactando un sector energético ligado a los mercados de capitales. Por lo tanto, los precios del petróleo siguen siendo volátiles, y la economía mundial sigue siendo sombrío. La reducción de la actividad económica ha llevado a niveles de desempleo obstinadamente altos en muchos países. Y a medida que las ganancias de los particulares y los consumidores han disminuido, esas naciones se enfrentan a la reducción de las bases impositivas, agravando problemas con la deuda soberana. El impacto se siente en todo el mundo, incluso en lo que han sido los mercados emergentes más vibrantes. A pesar de la turbulencia económica, la demanda de energía ha sido resistente a lo largo de la recesión, impulsada principalmente por el rápido crecimiento del consumo en el mundo en desarrollo. Como lo describe Kenneth Rogoff en su contribución La estabilidad relativa de los precios de la energía en la segunda gran contracción, la demanda de estas economías de rápido crecimiento, especialmente China, pero también de Oriente Medio y otras economías productoras de petróleo, países ricos. Él continúa, Si China, la India y otros mercados emergentes continúan expandiéndose, por supuesto la demanda de energía continuará explotando. La industria de la energía es sin duda un motor de crecimiento, ya que sus productos sirven como insumos en casi todos los bienes y servicios imaginables. Pero, ¿cómo contribuye la industria energética al crecimiento económico y al empleo, aparte de sus productos vitales Dado los riesgos y desafíos de la economía mundial en general, ¿cómo puede la industria energética desempeñar un papel en la recuperación económica y la creación de empleo? Entendiendo el papel económico más grande de la industria de la energía en un momento en que las cuestiones de empleo e inversión son tan críticas en una turbulenta economía global. Este informe está organizado en cinco capítulos: El capítulo 1 describe el papel general que la energía puede desempeñar en la economía de una nación y cómo este sector puede servir como motor del crecimiento económico. El capítulo 2 compara e ilumina el potencial de creación de empleo de los diferentes tipos de extracción y generación de energía basados ​​en un estudio de caso de los Estados Unidos. El capítulo 3 analiza cómo los países dotados de recursos energéticos tradicionales pueden maximizar el beneficio de la extracción de recursos para sus economías. El capítulo 4 examina cómo los países están desarrollando industrias no tradicionales de energía y el impacto económico de tales esfuerzos. El capítulo 5 ofrece conclusiones. El papel del sector energético en la creación de empleo La industria energética contribuye al crecimiento económico de dos maneras. En primer lugar, la energía es un sector importante de la economía que crea empleos y valor al extraer, transformar y distribuir bienes y servicios energéticos en toda la economía. Como ejemplo, en 2009 la industria de la energía representó alrededor de 4 del PIB en los Estados Unidos. En algunos países que dependen en gran medida de las exportaciones de energía, la proporción es aún mayor: 30 en Nigeria, 35 en Venezuela y 57 en Kuwait. 1 La industria energética se extiende a las economías como inversor, empleador y comprador de bienes y servicios. En segundo lugar, la energía subyace al resto de la economía. La energía es un insumo para casi todos los bienes y servicios. En muchos países, el flujo de energía suele darse por sentado. Pero los shocks de precios y las interrupciones del suministro pueden sacudir economías enteras. Para los países que enfrentan una escasez crónica de electricidad como la India, las interrupciones continuas suponen un fuerte y continuo peaje. La Industria de la Energía Función directa en la economía La industria afecta directamente a la economía utilizando mano de obra y capital para producir energía. Este papel es particularmente importante cuando el crecimiento económico y la creación de empleo son prioridades tan altas en todo el mundo. El Gráfico 1 muestra la participación de los sectores energéticos en el PIB del sector empresarial junto con otras industrias en varios países de la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico (OCDE). 2 Estos datos son difíciles de obtener para otras partes del mundo. Trabajo y empleo El sector de la energía emplea directamente a menos personas de lo que cabría esperar, dada su participación en el PIB, especialmente en comparación con otras industrias. El Gráfico 2 muestra la proporción del empleo en el sector energético en comparación con otros sectores en varios países de la OCDE. En Noruega, las industrias relacionadas con la energía representan 20 del PIB del sector empresarial, pero sólo 2,3 del empleo en el sector empresarial. La riqueza noruega puede estar en el petróleo, pero esa riqueza apoya a otros sectores, especialmente a las industrias de servicios. Más de ocho veces más noruegos trabajan en la asistencia sanitaria que en la extracción de energía. Sin embargo, investigaciones recientes en los Estados Unidos demuestran que la industria de la energía apoya muchos más trabajos que genera directamente, debido a sus cadenas largas de la fuente ya gasto por los empleados y los surtidores. Como el Senador Hoeven explica en su contribución, Dakota del Norte: La Nueva Frontera del Petróleo Americano, los empleos en la industria petrolera crean poder adquisitivo y generan la necesidad de servicios de muchos otros tipos. Así, muchos más puestos de trabajo se crean un múltiplo de los de la industria petrolera en sí. El Capítulo 2 explora estos impactos utilizando los Estados Unidos como un estudio de caso. Las industrias relacionadas con la energía no tienen una gran necesidad de mano de obra, pero los trabajadores que contratan son relativamente altamente calificados y altamente remunerados. Por ejemplo, la compensación por trabajador en las industrias relacionadas con la energía es aproximadamente el doble de la media en Alemania, Noruega, Reino Unido y Estados Unidos y cuatro veces la media en México y Corea del Sur. Como resultado de sus altos salarios, los empleados de la industria energética contribuyen con un gasto más absoluto per cápita a la economía que el trabajador promedio. Los altos salarios del sector reflejan el hecho de que los trabajadores de la industria energética son mucho más productivos que el promedio, contribuyendo con una mayor proporción del PIB por trabajador que la mayoría de los demás trabajadores de la economía. Capital e Inversión La industria de la energía es una de las industrias que consumen más capital en el mundo. En su World Energy Outlook 2011, la Agencia Internacional de la Energía (AIE) estimó que para 2035 se necesitará una inversión energética mundial acumulada de 38 billones de dólares (en dólares constantes de 2010) para satisfacer la creciente demanda mundial de energía. Los requisitos de inversión por trabajador en la industria energética también son muy altos. Por ejemplo, en los Estados Unidos, las industrias de la energía invirtieron un promedio de 176.000 dólares de los EE. UU. por año para cada trabajador en los últimos diez años, en comparación con la compensación de US101.000 por trabajador. Así, las industrias relacionadas con la energía gastan alrededor de 75 más en capital que en mano de obra. En comparación, las empresas de las industrias relacionadas con la informática gastaron sólo 17.000 dólares por trabajador en capital, una quinta parte de la tasa de remuneración laboral. 3 Estos grandes gastos de capital fluyen a través de la economía, creando empleos adicionales, ingresos fiscales y PIB al crear demanda de bienes y servicios intermedios. En los Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, la industria del petróleo y del gas gasta casi 50 de los ingresos en materiales y servicios, con proveedores en la construcción, metales fabricados, productos químicos, diseño de computadoras, servicios legales y financieros y una amplia gama de otros sectores. Estas redes de proveedores son cruciales para comprender el impacto económico potencial de la industria energética. Los países con una ventaja comparativa en habilidades y capacidades relacionadas con la energía tienden a retener más de estos beneficios a nivel nacional. El impacto será menor en los países que no pueden suministrar materiales y experiencia localmente. Los requerimientos de inversión de la industria de la energía lo hacen muy sensible al costo del capital. La competencia de los gobiernos y las empresas (incluida la industria energética) crea escasez e impulsa el costo del capital. Sin embargo, los costos de capital son actualmente extremadamente bajos debido a la depresión del sistema financiero mundial. Ahora es un buen momento para considerar la inversión en industrias de capital intensivo. Papel de los precios de la energía en la economía Además de los sectores energéticos contribuciones económicas en general, los precios de la energía relativamente más bajos y estables ayudan a estimular la economía. En primer lugar, los menores precios de la energía reducen los gastos para los consumidores y las empresas, aumentando el ingreso disponible que se puede gastar de otras maneras. En segundo lugar, los menores precios de la energía reducen los costos de insumos para casi todos los bienes y servicios de la economía, por lo que son más asequibles. Lo contrario también es cierto: precios de la energía relativamente más altos ponen un freno al crecimiento económico en todas partes excepto en las economías que están dominadas por la producción de energía. Los precios mundiales del petróleo entraron en un largo alza en 2004 y la tendencia se aceleró bruscamente en 2007. Esta subida de precios contribuyó a la profunda recesión en el mundo desarrollado que comenzó a finales de 2007. El aumento de los precios de la energía alejó el poder adquisitivo de los consumidores, - grupos de ingresos. También provocaron un deterioro en el sentimiento del consumidor y una desaceleración general en el gasto del consumidor, según James Hamilton, profesor de Economía de la Universidad de California en San Diego. 4 Estudios de caso Efectos macroeconómicos de bajos precios del gas natural en los Estados Unidos Las innovaciones recientes en la producción de gas natural a partir de formaciones de esquisto proporcionan un estudio de caso de cómo los precios más bajos de la energía pueden beneficiar a la economía en su conjunto. En los Estados Unidos, las innovaciones tecnológicas han estimulado el desarrollo de la producción de gas natural a partir de formaciones de esquisto. El aumento de la producción de gas de esquisto ha reducido significativamente los precios de gas y electricidad en Estados Unidos. Por ejemplo, los precios al por mayor del gas natural disminuyeron de un promedio de 6.73 dólares por millón de unidades termales británicas (MMBtu) para 2000 a 2008 a US 3.50 por MMBtu en octubre de 2011 (precios en dólares constantes de 2010). En el futuro, IHS CERA pronostica que los precios del gas natural serán aproximadamente la mitad de lo que habrían sido sin el auge de la producción de esquisto. IHS Global Insight utilizó su modelo macroeconómico estadounidense para investigar el efecto macroeconómico de esta disminución de precios. Ellos encontraron que los precios más bajos del gas natural proporcionaron un impulso a corto plazo a la renta disponible, los beneficios (excepto los productores de gas natural), el PIB y el empleo durante un período preocupante para la economía de los Estados Unidos. Estos efectos positivos de los menores precios del gas están ocurriendo a medida que la economía se está recuperando lentamente de la severa recesión de 2008-2009. Además, la disponibilidad de un suministro seguro de gas natural de bajo costo en los Estados Unidos está restableciendo una ventaja competitiva global para muchas industrias domésticas con uso intensivo de gas: productos químicos, aluminio, acero, vidrio, cemento y otras industrias manufactureras. Algunas de estas industrias están comenzando a invertir en la expansión de sus operaciones en Estados Unidos sobre la base de la disponibilidad de gas de bajo costo. Los menores costos del gas también están ayudando a mantener bajos los precios de la electricidad a medida que aumenta la participación del gas natural en la generación de energía. Y los consumidores residenciales y comerciales de gas natural están disfrutando de menores costos de calefacción. En 2010, la industria del gas de esquisto contribuyó directamente con US $ 76.800 millones al PIB de EE. UU. y apoyó más de 600.000 empleos. Sin embargo, sus contribuciones macroeconómicas durante este período de lenta recuperación han estimulado significativamente la economía global de los Estados Unidos a través de una reducción del costo de la electricidad y menores precios al consumidor de bienes y servicios, debido a menores costos de insumos. A corto plazo, los modelos económicos muestran que los precios más bajos del gas ayudarán a la economía más grande de varias maneras mensurables: un aumento de 1,1 en el PIB en 2013 1 millón más de empleos en 2014 y 3 mayor producción industrial en 2017 de lo que sería anticipado sin el desarrollo del gas de esquisto . Aunque el impulso del PIB a corto plazo se compensará a medida que la economía vuelva al pleno empleo, significa que la economía probablemente se recuperará a su potencial a largo plazo antes de lo que de otra manera tendría. IHS prevé que el PIB a largo plazo será ligeramente superior debido al aumento de la competitividad de los fabricantes nacionales. La producción industrial será 4,7 mayor para 2035 de lo que cabría esperar sin el desarrollo de gas de esquisto. Además, los menores costos de energía y materias primas llevarán a una mayor inversión en la fabricación y al empleo, particularmente en la industria química. La Estabilidad Relativa de los Precios de la Energía en la Segunda Gran Contracción Kenneth Rogoff Thomas D. Cabot Profesor de Políticas Públicas y Profesor de Economía de la Universidad de Harvard Una de las características más sorprendentes de la crisis financiera post - Los precios en general y los precios del petróleo en particular. Los precios del petróleo cayeron a 40 dólares por barril en las profundidades de la crisis financiera, pero esto todavía estaba muy por encima de los 20 por barril de principios de 2001. Desde 2008, los precios se han más que duplicado a pesar de la lentitud y fragilidad de la economía global. La razón principal de la relativa robustez de los precios del petróleo es bien conocida. A pesar de la recuperación muy lenta en las economías avanzadas, los mercados emergentes han disfrutado de una recuperación en forma de V. La demanda de estas economías de rápido crecimiento, especialmente China, pero también de Oriente Medio y otras economías productoras de petróleo, ha sustituido significativamente el crecimiento perdido de los países ricos. Sin embargo, vale la pena retroceder para ver cuán sorprendente ha sido la transformación del mercado del petróleo. Las economías avanzadas, que aún representan casi dos tercios de las exportaciones mundiales de bienes y servicios, han estado sumidas en la más profunda desaceleración mundial desde la Gran Depresión. De hecho, pocos países han recuperado el PIB per cápita que tenían al inicio de la crisis financiera. Su recuperación extremadamente lenta puede parecer sorprendente a la luz de las rápidas recuperaciones posteriores a la recesión que han sido la norma desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Pero de hecho, como Carmen M. Reinhart y yo mostramos en nuestra investigación (incluyendo nuestro libro de 2009 This Time Is Different), las recuperaciones lentas y detenidas son la norma tras las profundas crisis financieras, con los países típicamente tardando más de cuatro años en Recuperan su PIB per cápita inicial y con un aumento del desempleo durante un período similar. Incluso la ola de crisis post-financiera de incumplimientos soberanos que parece estar desarrollándose hoy es bastante típica. Como discutimos, la desaceleración en curso se describe más exactamente como, La segunda gran contracción, con los años 30 que representan el primer. La contracción se aplica no sólo a la producción y el empleo, sino también a otras variables como el crédito. El término Segundo Gran Contracción caracteriza con mucho más precisión la recesión y la recuperación lenta que el apodo que se dio a la recesión temprano, La Gran Recesión. Este último término parece indicar que, aunque la recesión fue profunda, la recuperación será proporcionalmente más fuerte, siempre que, por supuesto, se sigan políticas apropiadas. Sin embargo, la recuperación en las economías avanzadas ha sido algo normal, y hoy el crecimiento sigue siendo insatisfactorio y volátil. Por el contrario, la mayoría de los mercados emergentes han disfrutado de una recuperación en forma de V. A pesar de que una reducción épica del comercio mundial afectó a las economías asiáticas a finales de 2008 (que rivalizaba con la caída inicial del comercio durante la Gran Depresión), los mercados emergentes disfrutaron de la robusta recuperación que tantos expertos y políticos predijeron para las economías avanzadas. Su recuperación está en la raíz del fuerte resurgimiento de los precios mundiales de las materias primas, que también experimentaron generalmente una recuperación en forma de V. Sin embargo, con economías que representan dos tercios de las exportaciones globales atascadas en una Gran Contracción y sólo un tercio tiene una recuperación en forma de V, está lejos de ser obvio que los precios de las materias primas se hubieran mantenido tan robustos. ¿Cuáles son las razones? Una vez más, algunos son familiares. El crecimiento marginal en los mercados emergentes es considerablemente más intensivo en energía que en los países ricos, en parte debido a la composición de la producción (con una parte cada vez mayor de la manufactura mundial que emigra al mundo en desarrollo) y en parte a las políticas de algunos mercados emergentes que mantienen la energía Precios muy por debajo de los precios del mercado mundial. Pero los mercados financieros también han desempeñado un papel, y no necesariamente maligno. En primer lugar, el nivel extremadamente bajo de los tipos de interés reales globales casi ciertamente tiene un efecto significativo sobre los metales y la energía en particular. Las bajas tasas de interés elevan el precio de los activos de larga vida. La relación empírica entre las tasas de interés y los precios de las materias primas es anterior a la reciente expansión de los mercados especulativos de materias primas. La profunda profundización de los mercados especulativos de materias primas también ha desempeñado un papel. Aunque el comercio técnico de los especuladores seguramente ha aumentado la volatilidad a veces, también se puede afirmar que la profundización de los mercados ha ayudado a los precios a conectarse mejor con la historia de crecimiento a largo plazo en los mercados emergentes. Si China, la India y otros mercados emergentes continúan expandiéndose, la demanda de energía seguirá explotando, lo que aumentará en gran medida la presión sobre los precios en un futuro previsible. Esto sólo se verá en parte atenuado por las nuevas tecnologías, especialmente por los nuevos métodos de extracción del gas natural. El buen funcionamiento de los mercados financieros debería traducir esta demanda futura esperada de productos de larga vida en un precio mucho más alto hoy. Y, en general, eso es exactamente lo que han hecho. Por lo tanto, una combinación de mercados financieros más profundos y un crecimiento mucho más elevado de los mercados emergentes está detrás del desempeño relativamente sólido de los commodities. La siguiente etapa del desarrollo financiero tiene que ser encontrar mecanismos para que los exportadores de energía diversifiquen sus ingresos futuros de una manera justa para las generaciones actuales y futuras, sólida y creíble. Los precios de la energía, que representan un activo de larga duración, siempre van a ser volátiles. Pero hay maneras de potencialmente hacer la volatilidad menos dañina económicamente. Pensamientos sobre la Energía y la Economía Mundial Zhang Guobao Vicepresidente del Comité de Asuntos Económicos de la Conferencia Consultiva Política de los Pueblos Chinos y ex Jefe de la Administración Nacional de Energía de China Como el mundo todavía no se ha recuperado completamente de la crisis financiera, la economía mundial sigue siendo frágil y volátil este año. La tasa de crecimiento de las principales economías ha disminuido. La crisis de la deuda europea todavía envuelve la economía global. Todos estos factores han dado lugar a precios internacionales instables del petróleo. Los países de mercados emergentes se enfrentan a presiones inflacionarias relativamente fuertes. Los mercados de capitales están experimentando una volatilidad enorme, y las fluctuaciones en la economía mundial están creciendo más significativo. Estas cuestiones, así como una serie de incidentes críticos han creado cambios inesperados en el mercado mundial de la energía. En primer lugar, el consumo mundial de energía ha registrado tasas de crecimiento decrecientes. En los últimos años, el crecimiento del consumo de energía en los países desarrollados ha sido plano o está disminuyendo. En 2010, el consumo de energía primaria en los países de la OCDE creció en 3,5, similar a la tasa de crecimiento de hace una década. El consumo de energía primaria en los países no miembros de la OCDE aumentó en 7,5%. Los países en desarrollo, liderados por los países BRIC (Brasil, Rusia, India y China), han visto disminuir el consumo de energía por unidad de PIB, mientras que la demanda total de energía aumenta rápidamente. La demanda de energía en los países en desarrollo sirve como un motor principal del crecimiento de la demanda mundial de energía. El consumo de energía primaria entre los países del BRIC totalizó 5.600 millones de toneladas de equivalente carbónico estándar en 2010, 12 más que en 2009. Los combustibles fósiles tradicionales, como el carbón, el petróleo y el gas natural, son formas importantes de energía, mientras que las energías renovables representan una pequeña proporción de la energía. Mezcla de energía En China, los generadores de electricidad a carbón representaron 78 de los 1.000 millones de kilovatios de capacidad instalada en 2011. Como resultado de esta fuerte dependencia del carbón para satisfacer las necesidades de electricidad, China se transformó de un exportador neto a un importador neto de carbón En 2009. Sin desarrollar otros tipos de capacidad de generación, como la nuclear, la demanda de carbón de China probablemente superará los 4 mil millones de toneladas métricas en 2017 y representará más de la mitad de la demanda total mundial de carbón. En segundo lugar, la crisis de la deuda en los Estados Unidos y Europa envió ondas de choque en todo el sector energético. Algunos problemas profundamente arraigados aún no se han abordado. Las instituciones financieras bajaron sus previsiones para el crecimiento económico mundial, impactando un sector energético ligado a los mercados de capitales. Por lo tanto, los precios del petróleo siguen siendo volátiles, y la economía mundial sigue siendo sombrío. En tercer lugar, los conflictos geopolíticos han seguido afectando los precios mundiales del petróleo. Debido a la inestabilidad política en Oriente Medio y el norte de África, los precios de futuros del crudo y los precios al contado fueron severamente volátiles con una tendencia al alza. El precio del petróleo Brent del Mar del Norte en el Reino Unido alcanzó los 126,65 dólares por barril en abril de 2011, el máximo histórico desde el comienzo de la crisis financiera. Influidos por la situación en Irán, los precios del petróleo han subido recientemente. En comparación con Libia, las cuestiones en Irán tienen un mayor impacto en los precios del petróleo. En caso de que la situación se deteriore en Irán, los precios del petróleo se dispararán. Cuarto, los grandes accidentes tienen grandes impactos en el desarrollo de la energía. El terremoto y tsunami de Japón el 11 de marzo de 2011 provocó una fuga nuclear en Fukushima. El accidente minó gravemente el desarrollo en el sector de energía nuclear que se recuperaba previamente. También tuvo una profunda influencia en el ajuste de la estructura energética mundial. Como resultado, el desarrollo del gas natural se ha acelerado. Se ha hecho mayor hincapié en la energía limpia, como la energía hidroeléctrica, la energía eólica y la energía solar. En quinto lugar, el cambio climático global impulsará la reforma en el campo de la energía. El ajuste estructural de la energía está fuertemente influido por el cambio climático global. Sustainable development of energy and the environment has become a matter of global awareness. China is facing tremendous pressure to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions, which reached 8 billion metric tons in 2010 or 24 of the worlds total emissions. China must resume efforts to restructure its economic and energy consumption patterns. For example, increasing the weight of service industries and eliminating small-scale steel and cement producers that rely on outdated and inefficient equipment will help in this endeavour. Further, China will increase the share of cleaner energy sources such as natural gas, nuclear, hydro, wind and solar. Sixth, speculation is still a key factor that affects oil prices. Oil prices are no longer purely determined by supply and demand, but are increasingly influenced by financial activities. Analysts have pegged US 70 per barrel as a reasonable oil price. At todays oil prices, oil producing countries are in a favourable position compared to oil consuming countries. Therefore, oil - importing countries have attached greater importance to the development of alternatives to oil. Due to the Fukushima nuclear accident, the development of nuclear power has been undermined. However, given demands for energy supply and increased fossil fuel prices, another serious look will be given to nuclear power. North Dakota: The New Frontier of American Oil John Hoeven United States Senator, North Dakota, USA At a time when the need for jobs is a global issue, the North Dakota story demonstrates how energy development, well conceived and executed, can be a powerful engine for economic growth. North Dakota has come from almost nowhere to be the fourth largest oil-producing state in the United States. If current projections hold true, we could soon surpass California and Alaska to become the second largest oil and gas producing state. Today, North Dakota has the lowest unemployment rate in the nation. It has become a magnet for workers from other states and has a fiscal surplus that makes funds available for many other purposes. Jobs in the oil industry create spending power and generate the need for services of many other kinds. Thus, many more jobs are created a multiple of those in the oil industry itself. This remarkable development in North Dakota has occurred due to technological breakthroughs in tight oil, which allow oil to be extracted from very dense rock. Until a few years ago such extraction was not considered economically feasible. Today, hydraulic fracturing and directional drilling allow the production of more oil with a smaller environmental footprint than ever. This breakthrough did not occur in a vacuum it occurred in the context of thoughtful and comprehensive public policy. In North Dakota, where I served as governor for a decade, we have worked very hard to grow and diversify our economy, raise the standard of living for our citizens and create a better life for future generations. To achieve this, a decade ago we developed a long-range strategic plan that identified key industries where North Dakota holds a natural advantage. We chose to develop energy because North Dakota has it all coal, wind, biofuels, biomass, hydro, oil and gas. Through our states comprehensive energy plan, Empower ND, we created a business climate that would offer incentives to energy companies, both renewable and traditional, to invest in our state. We created the kind of legal, tax and regulatory certainty that would attract capital, technical expertise, innovation and most importantly, jobs to North Dakota. A decade later, we have seen real progress but when we started, it was anything but certain. Ten years ago, oil companies had either left or were leaving our states oil patch in the Williston Basin because companies were getting better returns elsewhere. Technology was lacking to produce oil economically from new formations. We lacked data on confirmed reserves, and the technology to produce oil from shale formations was not sufficiently developed. Furthermore, the workforce was ageing and we lacked training for new workers. Finally, transport constraints limited production. In other words, industry had better places in the world than North Dakota to invest shareholder dollars and earn a return. To turn that around, we built a climate for investment. We established an oil and gas research fund, paid for by the industry, and we put tax incentives in place to minimize investment risk. We also initiated studies of the Bakken Formation, which is at the heart of North Dakotas oil patch, through the North Dakota Geological Survey. Later, a follow-up study conducted by the United States Geological Survey indicated reserves of between 3 and 4.3 billion barrels of recoverable oil. Energy production and shipment depends on reliable infrastructure roads, rails, pipelines and the electrical grid. To meet those needs, we worked and continue to work to build that infrastructure. While I was governor, we created a pipeline authority to move more oil to market and a transmission authority to support drilling activities in the oil patch and lay the lines necessary to export more electricity to the region. With the petroleum industry in full swing, we needed to improve commercial and residential infrastructure, things like housing, water, retail and roads. In my last budget as governor, we dedicated more than US 1 billion to address public infrastructure needs. We widened highways, installed traffic lights and made other improvements to the state transportation system necessary to keep up with the growth of the industry. The oil industry is now a highly technical undertaking and requires a skilled workforce. When we started, that workforce was ageing. To meet the challenge, we established a Center of Excellence for Petroleum Safety and Technology at Williston State College to train workers in new oil-field drilling and recovery methods. And that is just oil. Through Empower ND, we made strides in all of our energy sectors, including wind-generated electrical power, biofuels and other energy resources but that is another story. States are not nations, but nations can learn from states. The key to unlocking the energy potential of the planet is creating an environment that attracts private investment, promotes innovation and deploys new technologies to maximize all of our energy resources, both traditional and renewable. That requires reliable, predictable and sensible policies. Robust energy development can generate revenues for nations, enabling them to fund their priorities it can broaden their economic base and create jobs and most importantly, it can help feed, clothe, shelter and employ a growing world population. Energy Sector Job Creation The energy sector is a crucial part of the economy, thanks to the importance of its products and its direct and indirect contributions to employment and GDP. This chapter takes a closer look at the energy sectors effect on employment in the United States, broken down into oil and gas production and the construction and operation of power generation capacity. It particularly emphasizes areas of growth in energy production and what follows in terms of jobs and value creation. Economists generally group energy-related jobs into three categories: Direct jobs are held by individuals who are employed or contracted by firms in the sector to produce and deliver energy products to consumers. Indirect jobs represent positions created in industries that supply the energy industry with goods and services. Induced jobs result from the salaries paid to workers in the first two groups. People directly and indirectly employed in the energy industry spend their incomes and create demand for goods and services, thus increasing aggregate demand and employment in unrelated industries. In an industry with deep supply chains and high pay, indirect and induced jobs represent an important part of its overall economic contribution. The employment multiplier effect measures the contribution that an industry makes to the economy through the indirect and induced jobs it creates. The larger the multiplier for an industry, the greater the positive impact of money spent in terms of creating additional jobs across the broader economy. As a case study, this chapter focuses on the impact of the energy sector on employment in the United States. This case study demonstrates the way such an analysis could be done for other countries. Data from the United States highlight issues relevant to a large energy producing and consuming country. Developed nations with similar technology, labour and capital markets are likely to see similar employment impacts from the energy industry. Job Creation in Oil and Gas Extraction The US oil and gas industry has been growing despite the sluggishness of the overall economy. IHS forecasts that the oil and natural gas extraction industry will achieve average annual growth of 6.9 through 2017, compared to the overall real GDP growth forecast of 2.6. In 2009 the oil and gas extraction industry alone accounted for 7 of total investment. It also added approximately 150,000 jobs in 2011, 9 of all jobs created in the United States that year. In the United States, these impressive statistics have helped states endowed with oil or natural gas, such as North Dakota and Oklahoma, keep their unemployment rates down to 3.2 and 5.3, respectively, compared to a national rate of more than 9. In fact, these states registered employment growth of 6.2 and 4.2, respectively, over the last six months of 2011, due largely to the oil and natural gas industry. As John Hoeven describes in his contribution, Today, North Dakota has the lowest unemployment in the nation. It has become a magnet for workers from other states and has a fiscal surplus that makes funds available for many other purposes. Growth Areas for Oil and Gas Extraction Three key areas have made up much of the sectors growth in the United States over the past few years: deepwater oil and gas, unconventional gas and unconventional oil. These activities create significant economic benefits in terms of employment and GDP. Investment in the industry spreads widely through the economy. Such development requires drilling rigs, trucks and other equipment and the crews to drill and complete wells plants to process oil and gas before transportation and pipelines to move products to market or to refineries. These require billions of dollars in capital investment and generate tens of thousands of jobs. Deepwater Oil and Gas Production Recent technological advances in offshore drilling have opened new areas to exploration and development. Since 2000, deepwater oil production worldwide has risen from 1.5 million barrels per day (mbd) to 5.0 mbd, with the added output largely centred off West Africa and Brazil, as well as in the Gulf of Mexico. Global deepwater output today is more than the combined production of Venezuela and Nigeria. In the United States, the deepwater production in the Gulf of Mexico accounted for nearly 24 of national output and employed 400,000 people in 2009. Even more growth in deepwater production is likely. Since 2006, nearly half of total oil and gas reserves added worldwide and 70 of significant new finds have been in deepwater. Estimates of the resource and projections for growth are both very large. In 2009, the average deepwater discovery was 150 million barrels compared with 25 million barrels for onshore discoveries. Unconventional Gas Unconventional gas production, including shale gas, coal seam gas and tight gas, has dramatically transformed the US energy outlook in just four years. As recently as 2007, many analysts believed that the gas resource base in the United States had matured or was inaccessible and that increasing imports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) would be required to meet demand. But then unconventional gas production began to grow. Natural gas production in the contiguous United States grew from a low of 49 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per day in January 2007 to its current level of more than 62 Bcf per day, 30 of which is shale gas. The shale gas industry alone employs 600,000 people in the United States, with an additional 400,000 employed in the production of tight gas and coal seam gas. US gas prices have decreased along with the increase in production, from an average of US 6.73 per million British thermal units (MMBtu) for 2000-2008 to US 3.50 per MMBtu in October 2011 (prices in constant 2010 dollars). Unconventional Oil Starting in 2009, the development of unconventional oil resources has reversed a long decline in US oil production. In fact, the United States led the world in growth in liquids production from 2008 to 2010, owing in large part to the development of unconventional oil. Significant production from tight oil fields in the United States started with the Bakken Formation in North Dakota. Although minor production was established in the region almost 50 years ago, technology and rising oil prices unlocked its true potential. The cost-effective application of long horizontal wells with multistage fracture completions drove Bakken production from only 10,000 barrels per day (bd) in 2003 to around 420,000 bd today. The same dynamic is playing out in other tight oil plays, most notably in the Eagle Ford in southern Texas. Approximately 350,000 people work in unconventional oil extraction in the United States. Employment Contribution This section evaluates the relative economic contributions in terms of employment and other economic benefits of these new, growing sources of energy. Table 1 shows the impact of oil and gas extraction in the United States through the employment multiplier and value added per direct employee, or the contribution to GDP of each direct employee. Employment Multiplier The employment multiplier is an important mechanism that quantifies how the oil and gas industry influences economic growth. On average, the industry demonstrates an employment multiplier greater than three, meaning that for every direct job created in the oil, natural gas and related industries, three or more indirect and induced jobs are also created across the economy. This places oil and gas ahead of many other industries, including the financial, telecommunications, software and non-residential construction sectors in terms of the additional employment associated with each direct worker. This employment multiplier is primarily the result of two factors. First, the oil and natural gas industry makes significant capital investments in structures and equipment, thus generating positive effects throughout the economy. Since the United States is a leader in many aspects of the oil and gas industry supply network, a large portion of the dollars spent by the oil and gas industry support US job creation. Multipliers in other countries may be smaller if they cannot supply materials and expertise locally. Second, the industry and its suppliers create particularly high-paying jobs. Americans working directly in the oil and gas sector are currently paid an average of US 28.30 per hour more than in the manufacturing, wholesale trade, education, finance and information technology sectors. High salaries result in relatively larger induced income effects for the US economy as a whole. The large employment multiplier effect for the oil and gas industry has magnified the impact of recent job growth in the industry. From 2010 to 2011, oil and gas industry employment grew by 4.9, directly adding 37,000 jobs to the US economy. Given an employment multiplier of three, this drove the creation of an additional 111,000 indirect and induced jobs during the same period. The total of nearly 150,000 represents approximately 9 of all jobs created in the United States in 2011. Value Added Per Worker A common measure of the relative contribution of an industry to the overall economy is the value added per worker or, in other words, the monetary value of work performed by an individual in a given year. The higher the ratio, the greater each workers contribution to GDP. As shown in Table 1, on average direct employees in the US oil and gas sector contribute US 171,000 to US 371,000 to GDP. The average figure for all other US industries in 2010 was approximately US 112,000. The larger economic contributions per worker highlight the impact of improving technology on productivity in the sector. Power Sector Job Creation This section provides an estimate of the jobs created by four electricity generation technologies: new investments in natural gas combined cycle, onshore wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) and the operation of existing coal plants. 1 Two phases of the lifecycle of a power plant are included in the analysis: the initial construction phase and the operations phase. The job impacts of these two phases differ substantially. Most job creation in power generation occurs when the facilities are built. Direct jobs are attributable to construction and the manufacturing of the equipment. Indirect jobs support equipment manufacturing, such as making the steel used to build wind turbines. However, jobs in the construction phase are temporary, by definition. For this reason, jobs are described in terms of average employment per unit of installed generation capacity, called job-years, rather than the absolute number of jobs created. One job-year equals full-time employment for one year. Job-years per megawatt (MW) represent the number of job-years needed to manufacture, construct and install one MW of capacity. Figure 3 shows the number of job-years per MW for newly constructed solar PV, wind and natural gas projects. This analysis does not include coal - fired generation, as few new coal plants are being built in the United States today. Overall, wind energy creates slightly more job-years per MW than natural gas. A portion of these wind jobs go to workers in other countries because some wind turbine components are imported. Newly constructed solar PV generates seven times more job-years than gas generation, primarily because solar panels are modular and require a lot of labour in manufacturing and installation. As in wind generation, many solar components are manufactured outside the United States. Even so, solar PV creates more than five times as many domestic job-years as gas generation. The large amount of labour required in solar PV installation must be done locally because installation services cannot be imported. Table 2 describes the values for the employment multiplier and value added per worker for the construction of new generation facilities in the United States. Value added per worker in the construction phase is lower than in the US oil and gas sector, reflecting the lower overall productivity in this portion of the energy sector. The number of workers required to produce a unit of generation capacity is highest in solar PV and lowest in natural gas. Once the large construction phase is over, there remain permanent jobs related to the operation of the new power supply sources. Direct jobs in this phase are associated with the day-to-day operations and maintenance of generating facilities. Indirect jobs are held by people who create supplies or inputs used for operations or maintenance, such as fuel, janitorial supplies or professional services. The magnitude of job creation in the operations phase is smaller than in the construction phase, but this increase in permanent jobs is meaningful. In this phase the number of jobs needed to maintain operations for one MW of capacity is calculated. Figure 4 shows the number of jobs per unit of capacity for wind, natural gas and existing coal-fired generation. The number of operations jobs for solar generation is negligible and is not shown on the graph. In the operations phase, natural gas employs 20 times as many people per installed MW than wind and seven times more than coal generation. Technologies that require ongoing fuel production (coal and natural gas) require more labour than those that do not (wind and solar PV). Once wind and solar PV facilities are built, little labour is required to run them, while about 22 of operations jobs for coal and gas generation are in resource extraction. Operations expenses for wind and solar PV are also low because most facilities are new, and thus need little maintenance. Table 3 shows the economic indicators for the operating phase of US power generation. Value added per worker is generally higher in the operations phase, reflecting higher worker productivity. The low number of jobs and high value added per worker in coal is a result of very efficient coal production in the United States. Advanced coal mining technologies, such as long wall mining, produce coal using many fewer workers than other techniques. In countries that do not employ such techniques the number of jobs per MW will increase substantially, but the value added per worker will be much lower. Job Creation vs. Cost of Energy Although the energy industry can be an engine of growth, energy choices affect prices. This fact is crucial to the overall economic impact of the industry. Investments might create a lot of jobs and direct economic benefits, but if they also raise energy prices, the net effect could be negative. However, consumer price subsidies or price caps can also harm the economy. Subsidies can be very expensive for governments and price caps can reduce incentives to invest in energy capacity. In either case, the eventual removal of the subsidy or price cap can also cause substantial economic disruption. The economic and employment impacts of growing sources of energy differ across the industry. In the case of oil and gas, unconventional wells cost two to four times as much as their conventional counterparts. Despite these high upfront costs, the full cycle costs of production from unconventional sources in the United States tend to be less than their conventional counterparts. For example, in 2011 the unit costs of producing shale gas were 40 to 50 below conventional gas. Unconventional wells are generally more productive than conventional wells initial production from shale gas wells is generally three times that of conventional wells. Marked increases in productivity and decreases in unit costs explain why the growing oil and gas sector in the United States has been so positive for industry job creation and overall economic growth. The picture in electricity generation is more mixed. According to our analysis, wind and solar PV generate more jobs per unit of energy delivered than natural gas in construction phase. However, generating more jobs per MW may not be the most efficient use of investment dollars. For instance, although solar PV installation creates a large number of job-years per unit of capacity, the cost of these jobs is reflected in the higher cost of producing electricity. Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) provides a common way to compare the cost of energy across technologies. It represents the present value of the total cost of an electricity generating system over its financial life taking into account initial investment, operations and maintenance, fuel and capital costs. As shown in Figure 5, solar PV has the highest capital cost and the highest levelized cost of generation of the technologies considered, nearly three times the capital cost and LCOE of natural gas generation. While wind generation projects incur higher initial capital costs as compared to natural gas, over the project lifetime those costs balance out to nearly the same level as natural gas. If costs are fully passed through to consumers, lower levelized cost of electricity translates to lower electricity prices, which helps economic growth. Investing in cleaner energy technologies can provide environmental benefits and help to promote energy security and innovation. Some proponents also suggest that such investment be made on the basis of job creation. However, energy investment decisions based on job creation alone rather than on productivity and cost efficiency measures may result in unintended adverse economic effects. Using more resources to produce the same economic output is not efficient. Other considerations may certainly outweigh the basic economic calculation, but higher costs of production result in higher consumer electricity prices. Because electricity is an input for nearly all goods and services in the economy, an increase in electricity prices would be felt throughout the economy. Additionally, electricity is a national or regional market. Power cannot be stored or transported on a global scale. These facts have crucial implications for policy decisions. High energy prices can reduce consumption and investment at the household, business and industrial level. Capital is mobile, but electricity supply generally is not. Maximizing the number of jobs in the electricity sector is not likely to be an efficient way to maximize employment in the economy as a whole. Maximizing the Economic Benefit from Traditional Energy Sources Energy resource development has the potential to bring wealth and prosperity to regions where extraction takes place. But the previous chapters demonstrated that direct job creation from the industry is relatively small. Much depends on the capacity of local suppliers and how the revenue from resource extraction is spent. How can countries with an endowment of energy resources develop them to maximize the benefits to the economy as a whole Success depends largely on the choices that resource-rich governments make about taxes on extraction and energy pricing, whether they promote a related industrial base and how they decide to use the revenue from extraction. Stable Tax and Fiscal Schemes to Support Development Countries make different decisions about how to generate revenue from the energy industry, ranging from direct investments through national oil companies to the hands-off approach of an income tax. Whatever the scheme, a stable fiscal environment encourages efficient resource development and helps a state to maximize revenue potential. Howard Newman describes the importance of stability in his contribution, The Importance of Energy Investment for a Sustained US Economic Recovery, The industry needs both clarity and certainty in its tax, environmental and regulatory environments. Clarity regarding costs allows firms to make investment decisions that reflect societys priorities. In the global marketplace for energy, investors are international players who can pursue opportunities in diverse places. Resource-rich states must consider a fiscal design that reflects their jurisdictions relative prospectivity and economic development needs. Likewise, when deciding where to invest, investors often consider the stability and predictability of the fiscal and regulatory framework. Stability creates confidence in government policy. Frequent changes in the fiscal system increase uncertainty and political risk, slowing the pace of investment and reducing the value that investors place on future revenue streams. Encouraging Industrial Diversification through Cluster Development The economic effects of energy development include higher government revenues and job creation, but the sector can also contribute to broader regional prosperity. Industry clusters can help diversify the local industrial base and spur innovation. Through cluster-based development, economically successful regions have knit together companies, teaching and research institutions and different levels of government to create uniquely competitive industries. The energy sector brings knowledge, skills, relationships and infrastructure that can spur economic diversification. Industry clustering is a powerful framework for regional development because it captures economic relationships among specific industry sub-sectors. Close contact and knowledge exchange in a cluster boosts the competitiveness of its members and the region as a whole. In his contribution, Key Levers for Turning Energy into Economic Prosperity, Khalid A. Al-Falih says, Nations cannot achieve first-tier economic performance simply by producing and exporting goods. Rather, they must be able to create their own differentiating knowledge through investments in education, research amp development and a vibrant entrepreneurial ecosystem. In the energy sector, cluster development generally occurs in one or more of the following segments: downstream, supply chain or complementary industries. Downstream. A region with energy extraction may promote value-added downstream industries, such as refining or petrochemical processing. For example, the Texas oil extraction industry brought about investments that led to the Houston regions petrochemical industry success. Supply chain. Regions can develop networks of upstream suppliers by enhancing the capacity of local firms to deliver inputs that are typically imported from outside the region. Such opportunities exist when a group of firms relies on the same raw materials, technology, human resources or information. For example, the United Kingdom is focusing on the manufacturing and installation of offshore wind generation to help overcome strategic and logistical challenges, such as integrating wind farms into the electricity grid. Complementary industries. Development in the energy sector often brings about new research, capital financing mechanisms, physical infrastructure, workforce skills, permitting protocols, etc. Each of these complementary activities can become the basis for a new seed cluster or innovative product, and therefore a potential new source of revenue for the region. Table 4 shows examples of industries that can be complementary to energy extraction. Supportive public policies can encourage the growth of value-added energy clusters. Examples of such policies include: Facilitation. Well-crafted facilitation is paramount to cluster development. Public sector officials can serve as advisors who bring together stakeholders and encourage the right mix of collaboration and competition. They may implement marketing strategies and encourage the development of industry associations. Policy-makers can also identify gaps between suppliers and buyers and recruit businesses to fill them. Local content requirements. Many energy-producing jurisdictions require that a portion of material inputs and labour be procured locally. Such requirements certainly support the development of local industry, but could raise costs or delay projects if local goods and skilled workers are not available in sufficient quantity and quality. Infrastructure development. Policy support for specialized resources and infrastructure can further energy cluster development. Policy-makers may choose to develop the hard infrastructure needed by industry, things like transportation networks, pipelines and telecommunications networks. Also crucial is soft infrastructure, such as financial institutions and regulatory systems. Education and training. Policy-makers can help local residents gain industry-specific skills by supporting training, higher education and lifelong learning programmes. Norway and Brazil provide examples of cluster development around oil and gas production. Norways economic diversification scheme is widely recognized as a model. Government policy encouraged RampD investments and required the use of local suppliers. International companies successfully transferred business know-how to local actors. Subsequently, the country focused on oil and gas sub - sectors like drilling, offshore oil platform construction and advanced equipment. Development continued into complementary industries such as mechanical engineering, shipbuilding and information technology. Norway also invested in rural development in regions that did not directly benefit from oil-related development. Today policy-makers in Brazil are considering how to generate broad-based economic benefits from large, recently discovered offshore oil resources. Brazils leaders are setting policy frameworks and planning strategic investments to develop the specialized education, training and infrastructure needed for an oil services and energy cluster. Complementary development is already taking place through the formation of an energy tech hub in Rio de Janeiro. This hub is attracting top energy service firms, which are building laboratories near the Petrobras Cenpes research centre. Like many other oil and gas producing countries, Brazil has instituted local supplier requirements to support energy - related industrial development. Such requirements were previously set at 60, but the government is considering raising local procurement requirements for certain parts of the supply chain. Their intent is to ensure that a large share of energy sector equipment, supplies and services are locally sourced to stimulate domestic industrial development. Jos Sergio Gabrielli de Azevedo describes this process in his contribution, Pre-salt Oil: An Onshore Perspective, Suppliers of oil and gas production equipment worldwide are presented with a unique growth opportunity. Some of them will inevitably expand their facilities in order to meet our demand. We expect this expansion to happen in Brazil, not only because it is now a legal requirement, but because it makes economic and strategic sense to have additional capacity close to our operations. This strategy has been successful in some countries, while in others it has posed challenges to resource development activities. In short, local content requirements often involve trade-offs. On the one hand, they build skills, generate jobs and broader economic growth by providing a direct stake in energy development to a wider segment of the population. On the other hand, local content requirements can slow development, reduce investment and retard the flow of revenues to the government. Implementing successful supplier content requirements requires a weighing of the positive effects against the challenges. Mitigating the Economic Risks of Resource Development Despite the wealth that natural resources can bring to a nation, resource-rich countries may face challenges in turning that wealth into economic growth. When countries with substantial natural resources are unable to outperform those without, they are said to be plagued by the resource curse. The resource curse arises from challenges in governance that resource-rich countries sometimes encounter. Poor governance can even result in a decline in living standards as many citizens suffer from the negative impacts of resource development, such as pollution, while the benefits accrue to others. When resources are developed, competition for the resulting revenues can become a nations central political issue. As a result, the main business (aside from resource development) becomes getting a share of the governments revenue, behaviour known to economists as rent-seeking. With so much attention focused on government largesse, the national economy can become inflexible and lose the ability to adapt and change as entrepreneurship and innovation fade away. Instead, a state-controlled economy flourishes, along with subsidies, controls, regulations and bureaucracy that can lead to micromanagement and corruption. Many countries subsidize the cost of energy as a way to promote economic development and alleviate poverty. This is especially true in oil and gas exporting countries, where domestic prices of fossil fuels are kept lower than export prices to help domestic industry. However, energy subsidies can result in unintended consequences, including inefficient consumption, increased carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and a large burden on government budgets. Lawrence Makovich elaborates on this point in his contribution, Putting Energy Back to Work, When retail energy prices are below costs, consumers enjoy paying less, but they do not see the full benefits of energy efficiency investments and invest less than is economically justified. On the producer side, when retail energy prices are too low, producers cannot recover their costs and subsequently they lose the ability to attract additional capital and produce as efficiently as possible. Compounding these problems are governments that get fiscally hamstrung trying to counteract these distortions through tax expenditures or subsidies from general funds. Likewise, resource-rich countries often establish spending patterns that become unsustainable owing to volatility of commodity prices. When prices and revenues soar, societies expect the government to increase spending by providing more subsidies, launching new programmes and promoting new capital projects. Further, energy industries generate relatively few direct jobs per unit of economic output, adding to the pressure for governments to spend more on entitlement programmes. As a result, governments can become locked into a pattern of increasing spending that is fiscally unsound when prices fall. Governments hesitate to decrease spending lest they spark political backlashes and social uprisings. Dr Okonjo-Iweala, Minister of Finance for Nigeria and former Managing Director at the World Bank, explains, If oil is what drives the growth of your economy, if your economy moves up and down with the price of oil, if you have volatility of expenditures and of GDP, then youre a petro-state. You get corruption, inflation, Dutch disease, you name it. 1 The high productivity and low job intensity of the energy extraction sector can create challenges in resource-rich countries. For example, the countries of the Middle East face challenges in employing their growing populations. In 2009 the region had 135 million workers by 2020, that number is forecasted to grow to 185 million. The region will need to add 50 million jobs over the next 10 years, but has only managed to add about 3 million jobs per year over the last 10 years. 2 The public sector is oversized relative to the private sector in many countries of the region, making job creation that much more difficult. Okonjo-Iweala explains that creating local jobs and developing economic activity in different parts of the supply chain may help resource-rich countries overcome these challenges. Specifically, she states, The only labour brought in from outside must be those people whose skills are clearly missing in a country. This is the path to help ensure governments fully welcome your investments as an integral part of their economic development agenda. She also encourages smart and responsible investment that supports the development of a value chain. According to Okonjo - Iweala, Companies should not just come in to extract natural resources in a raw form and ship them away. This is colonial history. Today, they should establish some degree of processing adding value to the raw materials. This creates employment, develops skills and leads to more buy-in from the local people. 3 A related phenomenon is Dutch disease, a term coined to describe the economy of the Netherlands in the 1960s. During this time, natural gas wealth flooded the Dutch economy to the extent that the local currency became overvalued and exports became very expensive abroad. As a result, domestic businesses became less competitive in the face of cheaper imports and increasing inflation. Businesses were unable to survive and the economy lost jobs. In resource-rich countries, the manufacturing sector is often the most affected by Dutch disease. Diversification and sovereign wealth funds can help to insulate countries from it. Managing Prosperity with Sovereign Wealth Funds Once oil and gas producing countries start reaping the financial rewards of extraction, the next concern is what to do with the resulting wealth. An increasing number of countries put money into sovereign wealth funds (SWFs), which are government investment accounts that are kept separate from the national budget. SWFs can be used to invest oil and gas earnings in a diversified portfolio of stocks, bonds, real estate and other financial instruments with the goal of earning a positive risk-adjusted return. They can also make investments in major national development initiatives. In resource-rich countries, SWFs have a number of goals. In some countries, they are employed as stabilization funds to counteract the high volatility of resource prices, unpredictability of extraction or the exhaustion of resources. Other SWFs are used to absorb sudden, large increases in domestic income to prevent revenues from flooding markets and causing inflation and Dutch disease. Some funds also have non-monetary goals, such as promoting local or regional economic development. In addition, SWFs have become useful tools for combating financial upheavals (e. g. offsetting the decline in government revenues owing to a fall in the price of oil, as happened in Russia following the price collapse of 2008) and for buttressing banking systems under pressure from global capital flight. Since 2006, the total number of SWFs nearly doubled from 22 to 42, owing to the emergence of significant new oil producers and exporters, including Angola, Brazil, Nigeria, Kazakhstan, East Timor and Azerbaijan. The largest oil - based SWFs are the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, with assets worth more than US 620 billion, and the Norway Government Pension Fund-Global, which is estimated at about US 560 billion, as shown in Figure 6. The types of investment made by SWFs vary depending on their strategies and objectives. For example, the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority invests in a variety of asset classes including equities in developing and emerging markets, hedge funds, futures, sovereign and corporate debt, real estate (funds and direct investments), private equity and infrastructure. Norways Government Pension Fund-Global invests 60 of its assets in equities, 35 to 40 in fixed income securities and up to 5 in international real estate. It currently does not invest in private equity. SWFs can be used as tools to decrease economic dependence on oil and gas and to promote renewable energies. For example, Abu Dhabis green energy firm Masdar, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the state-owned company Mubadala, is developing Masdar City, a zero - carbon, zero-waste city based on solar energy and other renewable technologies. 4 Likewise, Saudi Arabia is investing in solar energy as a way to diversify its energy sources and contribute to industrial growth and productivity. In an effort to diversify its portfolio and play a greater role in limiting the effects of climate change, Norways Government Pension Fund-Global is subject to nine different green mandates, requiring investments in assets that promote clean energy, water management and environmental technology that are expected to yield high growth and environmental benefits. In some cases, SWFs are used to promote regional development, including investments in farming and infrastructure. The global economic recession prompted Gulf SWFs to begin investing a larger proportion of their assets closer to home to combat high unemployment and declining economic growth. In 2009, SWFs and other Gulf investors in Qatar and Bahrain provided US 500 million in initial funding to a multibillion-dollar regional infrastructure project that will support highways and railway lines. Key Levers for Turning Energy into Economic Prosperity Khalid A. Al-Falih President and Chief Executive Officer, Saudi Aramco, Saudi Arabia It is often said that petroleum energy is the lifeblood of modern civilization: the indisputable driver of the unprecedented development and prosperity the world has experienced over the past century. But how can that precious energy source translate effectively into economic growth and higher living standards in the very nations that are blessed with an abundance of oil and gas When we review the performance of oil-producing countries in attaining broad economic development, we find mixed results. Of course all host countries, whether developed or developing, are driven by budgetary needs to maximize tax revenues from their petroleum resources. While taxation is necessary, I believe it is insufficient to achieve desired development objectives. The development of oil and gas resources depends more on capital than labour, and exporting oil and gas neither generates maximum returns from these precious resources nor creates large numbers of jobs within the local economy. As a result, the benefits are typically not shared broadly across society. In my view, a set of key strategies or levers can be used to improve that performance and achieve more significant socio - economic development in resource-rich states. The first lever would be the creation of oil - and gas-based industries that use energy as fuel and feedstock. This ticks off both the value-added and job-creation boxes by going beyond simple extraction and exportation. However, if these activities are limited to the production of commodities, their contribution to the economy and job creation will be somewhat constrained. If this strategy is to add greater value to commodities and spur significant job creation, resource-rich states need to produce more semi-finished and finished goods domestically, while emphasizing the role of small-to-medium-sized industries. Saudi Aramco adopted this strategy with its large-scale investments in integrated refining and chemicals facilities. These will serve as hubs for new industrial clusters and associated industrial parks that are being created and promoted. The second lever involves resource-rich countries developing their own energy service sectors, not just to support domestic petroleum activities (including processing-related industries) but eventually to enable these services to compete abroad, thus creating additional value for the nation and its people. You can see this approach at work in places like Stavanger, Norway, which is becoming the hub for equipment and services specializing in Arctic petroleum development, and Aberdeen, United Kingdom, which has established itself as a global nexus of offshore activities. The third key strategy focuses on using the various industrial and commercial activities associated with petroleum and related industries to catalyze advances in education, science, technology and innovation. Nations cannot achieve first-tier economic performance simply by producing and exporting goods. Rather, they must be able to create their own differentiating knowledge through investments in education, research amp development and a vibrant entrepreneurial ecosystem. Physical infrastructure remains important (particularly in developing nations), but concurrently investing in the development of a knowledge-based economy is essential to sustaining healthy economic growth and creating well-paying jobs in a highly competitive, ideas-driven global economy. The final lever involves striking a delicate balance between raising living standards, creating local competitive advantage and protecting the environment. Energy is needed to meet the growing demands of transportation and utilities, power the economy and fuel broader economic development. Yet resources must be managed responsibly and energy efficiency should be encouraged. Per capita energy consumption has long been considered an indicator of national prosperity and a key enabler of economic growth and development. Between 1990 and 2008, per capita primary energy consumption grew by about 10 in the mature economies of the OECD countries, but doubled in China as that country grew rapidly and many Chinese citizens enjoyed more affluent lifestyles. However, energy producing countries must be mindful of energy intensity: the amount of energy used to create a given unit of output. Energy intensity is better (or lower) in developed countries than in developing countries, but in general it has declined in most nations. Unfortunately, in the energy-rich Middle East, energy intensity has risen by more than one-third over the last 20 years. Improved efficiency is imperative given that it can help decrease emissions and reduce energy costs while helping to maintain living standards and economic growth. Resource-rich nations should not ignore efficiency simply because energy is abundant. It would be a mistake to believe that environmental protection and economic growth are mutually exclusive. Instead, resource - rich states can take several actions that advance economic development and minimize environmental impact. For example, this could be accomplished by improving energy efficiency utilizing cleaner fossil fuel technologies consuming cleaner natural gas moving industries down the value chain to add greater value and create higher-paying jobs while consuming less energy reducing carbon emissions through the use of high-end technologies and introducing renewables in a deliberate and pragmatic manner as their economic viability improves. By thoughtfully applying these levers and exercising wise resource stewardship, energy-rich countries can achieve sustained prosperity for their own people, while also contributing to global growth and development. Putting Energy Back to Work Lawrence Makovich Vice-President, IHS CERA, USA One critical energy policy challenge is to make energy resources more productive in the world economy. Past efforts to meet this challenge increased worldwide economic output per unit of energy input by 9 between 1997 and 2007. These productivity gains contributed to improving the well-being of hundreds of millions of people around the globe. However, four years ago the Great Recession abruptly halted this progress. Today the world economy continues to struggle to fully recover and regain positive momentum. In these tough economic times, growth cannot be taken for granted. The publics focus falls on government policies to help restore the economy to full employment. Although the current policy headlines focus on stimulus spending and national debt management, we should not lose sight of the crucial role that energy policy plays in enabling good economic performance and sustainable economic growth. Energy is the life-blood of economic activity. Without energy you cannot build or run the offices, cities and factories that provide the jobs, services and goods that make peoples lives more comfortable and secure. Yet economic growth does not come from simply using more energy. Energy is just one of many critical inputs to the complex system of competitive markets and government processes that transform these inputs into the goods and services that people want. Consequently, one key to delivering higher GDP per person is to get the biggest bang for the buck from the energy inputs to the economy. The bottom line is that well thought-out energy policies are crucial to driving economic growth in an environmentally responsible way. But meeting the energy policy challenge does not happen by accident. Although most people agree that energy policy matters, the political process of compromise and negotiation unfortunately does not always produce an optimal energy policy. There are numerous examples of countries like Nigeria that are richly endowed with energy resources and yet fail to take maximum advantage of these resources for the benefit of their economies. In contrast, some countries like South Korea prosper despite having no meaningful natural endowments of energy. These successes and failures from around the world reveal that best practices in energy policy have the following goals: Promote a Stable Investment Climate. The energy sector is far more capital intensive than other industries. Infrastructure development involves long lead times and decades-long operating horizons. As a result, the stability of market rules and regulations and the sanctity and enforceability of contracts and property rights separate the winners from the losers in the global competition to attract capital for energy infrastructure investment. Provide the Opportunity to Earn Adequate Returns. Attracting and maintaining an efficient energy infrastructure requires providing investors with ongoing opportunities to earn an adequate return on investment. In a business with strongly cyclical commodity prices and variable cash flows, it is critically important to know ahead of time how risks are being allocated and the rules governing the opportunity to earn an adequate return. For example, policies that avoid adjusting tax and royalty regimes in response to short-run market conditions are more conducive to attracting and maintaining investment. Send the Right Price Signal. Prices provide powerful signals to organize the productive use of energy in the economy. However, to do this, prices need to reflect real underlying costs. A lot of attention has recently focused on energy prices that are too low because they do not fully internalize environmental costs. Yet more attention needs to focus on retail energy prices that are held well below production costs because political concerns trump economic efficiency. For example, when retail energy prices are below costs, consumers enjoy paying less, but they do not see the full benefits of energy efficiency investment and invest less than is economically justified. On the producer side, when retail energy prices are too low, producers cannot recover their costs and subsequently they lose the ability to attract additional capital and produce as efficiently as possible. Compounding these problems are governments that get fiscally hamstrung trying to counteract these distortions through tax expenditures or subsidies from general funds. Appreciate the Complexity. The energy sector is complex. The rules and institutions that govern this sector need to reflect this complexity and also resist policy changes based on simplistic solutions that underestimate the time and cost of altering the industry. More often than not, these initiatives cause unintended consequences that delay sustainable progress in the long run because of the inevitable negative reaction to unexpected costs. Pace of Change. Effective energy policy paces change in line with realistic cost and technology assessments. For example, policies designed to force technological innovation need to initiate enough activity to create scale, push innovators up the learning curve and allow for the evolution of technology to lower costs. If the pace is too slow, then technology does not advance and when the pace is too fast, additional costs accumulate with few additional benefits. Pre-Salt Oil: An Onshore Perspective Jos Sergio Gabrielli de Azevedo Chief Executive Officer, Petrobras, Brazil Since we discovered the pre-salt oil fields offshore Brazil in 2007, much has been said about the potential for the area to become one of the worlds major oil and gas provinces. Indeed, the IEA points out that the pre-salt fields could be a game - changer for our company and even for world oil supply in the next 25 years. Petrobras has already discovered for itself and its partners between 13 and 16 billion recoverable barrels of oil equivalent (boe) in only 28 of the pre-salt area. Thus, from the current concessions in the pre-salt fields alone, we expect to be producing around 2 million barrels of oil per day by 2020. To put this in perspective, it took Petrobras 57 years to reach this level in all of Brazil (in traditional offshore and onshore fields). So far, the results of our efforts have surpassed our expectations. The companys most productive well is located at the Lula field, which produces an amazing 36,000 boe per day. But I would like to call attention to another potential benefit of the pre-salt fields, concerning the wealth that can be created onshore by the investments required to tap these offshore resources. Some facts and figures give a sense of the opportunities that lie ahead. Petrobras capital expenditures on the pre-salt fields will total US 53.4 billion in 2011-2017 (about 45 of our upstream investments in Brazil). Presently, our stake amounts to only 26 of the total pre-salt area. Even though it is far from straightforward to estimate the multiplier effect of our investments on the supply chain, some studies suggest that for each R1 invested by Petrobras, another R3 are invested in the supply chain. For example, in terms of work opportunities, during peak construction of a producing platform, 4,000 to 5,000 direct jobs are created. But we will need more than platforms to reach our pre-salt targets: our demand will translate into a number of drilling rigs for ultra-deep water, pipelines, supply vessels, turbines, engines, valves, pumps and more. Also, an aspect of our growth prospects that is often poorly appreciated is the need to invest in the refining business. Since we expect Brazils refined product consumption to grow by around 4 per year from now to 2020 (in stark contrast to the expected decrease in demand in OECD countries), we will build new refineries to strike a balance between domestic consumption and refining capacity, thereby securing our profit margins in the segment. In light of that, suppliers of oil and gas production equipment worldwide are presented with a unique growth opportunity. Some of them will inevitably expand their facilities in order to meet our demand. We expect this expansion to occur in Brazil, not only because it is now a legal requirement, but because it makes economic and strategic sense to have additional capacity close to our operations. Think, for instance, about maintenance and troubleshooting, and it is easy to realize how useful a strong local industrial base can be. We are very much aware of the challenges we face and are striving to anticipate and overcome all the possible difficulties. We have identified bottlenecks that may stall the industrys development, and we are pursuing different courses of action to increase the competitiveness of the Brazilian industry. For example, we are incentivizing international companies to start operations in Brazil, either alone or through partnerships. The results have been more than encouraging: a number of well - known, experienced companies are already building facilities in Brazil or are in the process of coming to our country. They are not only creating manufacturing facilities, but also building up RampD units for the development of new technologies. Suppliers to the industry can reduce their funding costs through a programme that offers interest rate reductions, relying on our contracts to reduce credit risk to the banks. We are also training people to work in the supply chain. So far, around 80,000 people have been trained and 265,000 are expected to be qualified by 2020. We give our suppliers full visibility on the equipment we will require in our 5-year business plan. Today, they can log into a website and check the details of our future procurements, so they can plan ahead and adapt their facilities, if need be. Also noteworthy is the Brazilian Federal Governments creation of a Social Fund, which will invest revenues from the pre-salt fields in trans-generational projects, devised for long-term sustainable development, with a focus on education, science and technology and poverty reduction. The inescapable fact is that all these developments are producing a virtuous cycle that is fostering the creation of high-quality jobs, helping to generate income and reduce inequalities. The pre-salt fields are a striking example of how the oil and gas industry in addition to providing the world with much-needed energy can act as a catalyst to improve socioeconomic conditions. The Importance of Energy Investment for a Sustained US Economic Recovery Howard Newman President and Chief Executive Officer, Pine Brook Partners, USA The United States is now in its fourth year of substandard economic performance, and observers are wondering if the recovery from a credit bubble recession is going to be slower than one from a normal business cycle recession. Although many analysts believe that a long, slow recovery is unavoidable, those who more fully understand the nature of the slow recovery are reaching a different conclusion. Real consumer spending has been growing since mid-2009 and is now greater than it was at the beginning of the recession. Total non-residential investment, which fell by nearly 22 during the recession, has increased by nearly 20 in the past year and is now less than 10 below its peak. Residential investment, however, declined by more than 30 and is not recovering. Importantly, because every dollar of construction GDP requires the purchase of one dollar of intermediate goods and services, total investment cannot recover until housing does. Unfortunately, the US housing industry is unlikely to fully recover to its pre-recession activity level. Most markets were so overbuilt at the peak of the bubble that a best case recovery scenario would be 65 to 75 of peak housing starts. About one-third of the 7.5 million jobs lost during the recession were in construction. In addition, we estimate job losses in supporting activities may have equalled 75 to 100 of the direct jobs lost. Even if the housing market returns to 75 of its peak level, we will still need to replace over 1 million construction-related jobs with other activities. Fortunately, the domestic oil industry may provide the antidote to our housing-related employment blues. A confluence of high real oil prices and new technologies creates the opportunity for the United States to boost domestic production by 2 million to 3 million barrels per day within five years by increasing its horizontal rig count by 10 to 15 per year. Based on industry rules of thumb, this additional production would create at least 500,000 new jobs plus many new indirect jobs. For example, new or upgraded roads will be needed for drilling and production crews. Many new resource technologies require significant investments in water handling. Pipelines or other transportation solutions will be needed to move supplies to markets. In short, this industry will create jobs for workers with construction skills. In addition, we may see downstream benefits such as a possible resurgence in the US petrochemical industry resulting from increased production of natural gas liquids in wet gas shale plays, or an increase in manufacturing jobs to provide steel pipe and other oil and gas field supplies. Finally, because todays oil prices are set in the global marketplace at prices that reflect the revenue needs of oil exporting countries, profit margins will allow industry players to mitigate environmental issues associated with the development of these resources. What public policies are needed to make this happen First, the industry needs both clarity and certainty in its tax, environmental and regulatory environments. Clarity regarding costs allows firms to make investment decisions that reflect societys priorities. If there are issues, they should be quantified. For example, if the public is concerned about well-bore integrity in shale drilling, solutions should be developed with dollar amounts attached to them. The costs will not be large relative to todays margins and will properly flow through to consumers in the form of higher prices. Certainty allows firms to lengthen their investment horizons and lower the required returns two actions that will increase the level of exploratory activity and expand the potential resource base. More importantly, investment decisions can be made based on the economic life of the activity, rather than on the political cycle. Together, clarity and certainty can dramatically increase industrial activity without requiring higher prices. Second, the industry needs to know that infrastructure will be available on a timely and cost effective basis. Again, this is primarily an issue of clarity and certainty. The transportation charge associated with new infrastructure is directly related to the time period over which costs can be amortized. Todays high differentials reflect both the uncertainty in the timing for permitting new pipelines and an expectation that new infrastructure costs will be recovered over a shorter time period than the productive life of the new basins. Finally, the United States needs to address its financial system. Washington still treats the credit bubble as a liquidity issue, not a debt-to-income one, and has not resolved the underlying regulatory problems that led to excessive leveraging in the first place. Excessive leveraging allows investors to achieve higher returns in financial assets than in the capital goods that they finance. This unnatural situation restricts the flow of capital to industry, resulting in too little investment. Because capital deepening is needed to increase both per capita and national income, addressing this issue is perhaps the most important challenge facing the country. Recognizing that a solution to the leverage issue can also help the United States dramatically improve its energy balance may be the catalyst needed to finally make progress in this area. Economic Benefits of Renewables Natural resource development is primarily influenced by the availability of resources, any constraints that a country or region might face in developing them, and the fiscal and regulatory regimes governing development. These factors are shaped not only by technology and economics, but also by policy, politics and public opinion. The energy supply will continue to rely mostly on traditional sectors over the coming years, but the current push for innovation and growth in the renewable sector will affect the degree of this reliance. Rapidly growing economies are seeking to secure stable energy supplies in a time when the environmental impacts of energy production are coming under growing scrutiny. More countries are focusing on developing technologies beyond traditional resource extraction. The development of these clean or renewable energy technologies can provide economic opportunities to countries with substantial traditional energy resources and countries that lack such resources by offering an alternative means to power their economies and generate jobs for their citizens. Renewable energy is a growing part of todays energy supply, embraced as a key solution to the triple challenges of energy supply, security and climate change. Renewables delivered nearly 20 of global electricity generated in 2010. Large hydropower made up more than 80 of global renewable power and 16 of global power generation overall. 1 More than 100 countries have set renewable energy targets, about evenly split between the developed and the developing world. As Jean-Marie Chevalier describes in his contribution, Energy and the Economy in Europe, the European Union has set particularly ambitious goals of obtaining 20 of energy from renewables by 2020. He further states, Europes main energy priority is to build a single energy market through market liberalization and competition. Achieving this goal involves balancing three core priorities: maintaining economic competitiveness, transitioning to a low-carbon economy and ensuring security of supply. However, reaching higher targets will be no easy achievement given the scale and complexity of the energy system. Although costs have come down substantially over the years, renewables remain more expensive than conventional energy in a number of applications. Today, the future of renewables is primarily determined at the level of policy and politics, but they are set to become a significant part of the energy mix in coming years. In some countries without major resource endowments, such as South Korea, policy-makers view the development of alternative energy as an important way to balance environmental and energy security concerns. South Korea ranks among the worlds leading energy importers, and clean energy may provide a way to improve energy security while also promoting environmental stewardship and economic growth. In his contribution, Energy: Fuelling South Koreas Transformation, Han Seung-soo states, Through innovative ideas and investments in new, advanced technologies, green growth transforms the climate, energy and financial crises into opportunities for renewed, sustainable growth. Using Clusters to Develop the Non-Traditional Energy Sector Innovation and investment in renewable energy allow countries with significant resource endowments, as well as those without, to move towards sustainable growth. Some regions are developing policies to encourage innovation in renewable energy, which includes promoting renewable energy clusters. Considered an effective development strategy for the traditional energy sector, the cluster model is applicable to non-traditional industries as well. Clusters typically emerge in one of three ways: Organic development. Silicon Valley is an example of an organic cluster that grew to prominence not because of targeted policy intervention, but instead due to the regions culture of innovation. Silicon Valley has reinvented itself time and again as new technologies from world-class universities and research laboratories find venture capital and other ingredients for commercialization. Government efforts. Although many regions around the world have tried to launch clusters through government spending programmes, this strategy is not always successful. Clusters emerge when a region holds an underlying competitive advantage, which could include access to specialized resources and skilled employees, specialized market or technical information or specialized infrastructure. Although a government could work to identify and capitalize on these advantages, this approach can be problematic if it fails to build on existing marketplace dynamics. Public-private partnerships. Cluster developments today are typically joint efforts of the public and private sectors. The public sector may use policy tools to build an environment to attract and support private sector investment. The private sectors market knowledge and investment potential combine with policy tools strategically developed by the public sector to accelerate what could otherwise be a slow-moving process. Successful policies work in several ways: they encourage private investment tackle objectives in a cost-effective way promote continuous innovation and are designed through processes that are transparent, accountable and participatory. Policy interventions are generally needed for workforce development, university-based RampD, public capital formation and specialized physical infrastructure. The private sector usually provides industry-specific expertise and financing. Developing the European Wind Sector Europe has become the worlds leader in offshore wind development. The first utility-scale offshore wind farm in Europe, with 20 turbines and 40 MW of generating capacity, was installed in Denmark in 2001. Since then offshore winds share of new wind installations in Europe has been steadily increasing, from 1 in 2001 to 9.5 in 2010. The European Union has embraced offshore wind as one of the major ways of meeting its ambitious 2020 renewables target. Offshore wind currently makes up less than 4 of Europes wind capacity, but meeting the target will require large investments in this sector. The European offshore wind market grew more than 50 during 2010, bringing total capacity to 3 gigawatts (GW). 2 Most of these additions were made in the United Kingdom, Denmark and the Netherlands, but Germany is also quickly ramping up its offshore wind capability. Germanys decision to phase out nuclear power by 2022 in response the Fukushima disaster in Japan has contributed to increased urgency in the offshore wind sector. Germany is Europes largest wind market. With more than 27,000 MW of installed capacity, Germany accounts for almost one-third of all wind capacity in Europe. Germany is also encouraging investment in solar PV, biomass and hydropower, but offshore wind is the main focus for expanding renewable energy production. Germanys installed offshore wind capacity currently stands at 198 MW. However, the country has an offshore wind target of 10 GW installed by 2020. To help facilitate these rapid investments in the Germany wind sector, the government is providing investors access to special financing and implementing fast-track permitting. Germany also boasts an active wind association that provides expertise and shares information and best practices among stakeholders. Transmission poses a challenge for German wind development. Congestion in transmission lines sometimes makes it impossible to transport electricity from wind farms in the north to demand centres in the south, meaning lost revenue for wind operators. To counteract this issue, Germany is planning to accelerate the expansion of its grid infrastructure. The Bremerhaven wind cluster in Germany, which has promoted the development of offshore wind in the countrys northwest region, provides an example of what targeted investment can do. Originally a hub for shipbuilding, Bremerhaven was reinvented by local officials for wind development after a shipping downturn. The cluster includes about 185 member organizations, and the area is home to a fully formed, locally based supply chain, as well as related industries and major distributors. In recent years, nearly half of all investments in Germanys North Sea offshore wind sector were made in Bremerhaven. While Western European wind markets are maturing and exploring offshore technologies to generate new capacity, Eastern European marketsdriven by Turkey, Romania and Poland, as well as emerging markets including the Ukraine are expected to contribute significantly to growth in onshore wind capacity in Europe. Eastern Europes share of Europes total onshore capacity additions has risen from 0.3 in 2000 to 21 in 2010. By 2020, Eastern European markets are expected to make up more than 30 of annual onshore additions in the region. Using Oil and Gas Expertise to Develop a Thriving Renewables Sector From Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates to Austin, Texas in the United States, some regions rich in traditional energy resources are also leading the way in renewable energy and clean technology. They are building upon existing expertise and resources acquired through from their experience in conventional energy. In Abu Dhabi, the government provided most of the seed capital to develop Masdar City, which will test and showcase many sustainable, zero - carbon and zero-waste technologies. Masdar is also extending its expertise in renewable energies around the world by forging partnerships with other companies to develop the London Array wind farm in the United Kingdom and Torresol Energys Gemasolar concentrated solar power plant in Spain. In Austin, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the IC2 Institute, the University of Texas and the Austin Technology Incubator partnered in 2001 to launch the Clean Energy Incubator to develop early-stage clean energy companies. Building upon the regions oil and gas sector expertise, this incubator offers start-ups a connection to experienced energy industry mentors, assistance with strategy development, access to financial resources, publicity and many other support services only available in a region with a rich energy history. Adequate Energy Supply to Enable Economic Growth Economic growth in emerging markets has rapidly increased energy demand globally, especially in the large-population countries of Brazil, India and China as well as in the Middle East. In addition to overall increases in energy demand, many developing economies are seeking ways to maximize their power generation capacity to ensure that power shortages do not hinder growth. Many individuals in developing countries experience inadequate or unreliable access to electricity. In its 2011 World Energy Outlook, the IEA reports that 1.3 billion people, or 20 of the worlds population, lacked access to electricity in 2009. Eighty per cent of these people were located in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Shortfalls in electricity supply hold back business and economic growth in the worlds poorest countries. Since energy is a key input for nearly all goods and services, inadequate energy access lowers productivity, competitiveness and employment. According to one study based on 2005 data, electricity outages in Sub-Saharan Africa resulted in an economic cost of 2.1 of GDP. 3 Brian Dames emphasizes the importance of power access in his contribution, Equitable Access to Energy: a Driver for Jobs, Healthcare and Education. Eskoms most important job is to provide an uninterrupted supply of affordable electricity to support economic growth and help the country move towards a cleaner future, thereby improving the quality of life of the people of South Africa, he writes. Dames reiterates, Inadequate power supplies take a heavy toll on the private sector, and the economic costs of outages are substantial. Power sector challenges exist around the world. According to Maxim Timchenko in his contribution, Benefits and Challenges of Modernizing the Ukrainian Power Sector, the sector needs billions of dollars to upgrade and create new capacity to meet the economys requirements. According to Timchenko, Ensuring these investments are made wisely and sustainably by the power sector will be by far the biggest contribution to Ukraines economic wellbeing and development. He suggests that government reforms to improve the transparency, consistency and predictability of regulatory policies, as well as changes to introduce economically justified tariffs, will help encourage private investment. Promoting Sustainable Development in Rapidly Growing Economies Policies supporting renewable energy clusters are often implemented to help resource-lean countries ensure access to adequate and clean energy supplies at affordable prices. Two of the worlds largest and fastest growing economies, China and India, are reforming their energy policies to promote energy efficiency and sustainable development. As a result, both countries are turning to clean energy alternatives. Some countries subsidize energy prices to promote development. However, energy subsidies and price caps can create market distortions and supply disruptions. For example, in China power generators are experiencing financial losses due to caps on electricity prices that do not allow them to recoup the cost of generating power. This is impeding investment in the power sector, creating the potential for physical shortages that would directly affect manufacturing and services. A similar situation exists in India, where government subsidies keep the cost of energy lower for residential and farm use. The result of the policy is that the average price of electricity does not cover the full cost of production, thus discouraging private investment in Indias power sector. Chinas Push for Clean Energy Energy and environment is one of the three key themes in Chinas twelfth five-year plan (2011-2017), the master blueprint for achieving the nations economic and social objectives. In Lin Boqiangs contribution, Providing Sufficient Energy to Meet Chinas Development Requirements, he describes why energy is such a central concern: Energy security concerns, energy scarcity, high energy costs and mitigation of negative environmental externalities may present challenges to Chinas ability to continue along a path of sustainable economic growth. The plan focuses on marrying environmental and energy challenges with market opportunities and the potential for leadership in new industries. The five-year plan includes a number of initiatives to encourage clean energy development. The plan identifies Strategic Emerging Industries for investment, with a target that these industries contribute 8 of GDP by 2017. Three of the seven targeted industries are directly related to sustainable energy: energy saving and environmental protection, including efficient industrial equipment and energy service companies new energy, including renewable energy, nuclear and clean coal and new energy vehicles, including electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. The plan also includes targets for reducing energy use and carbon emissions per unit of GDP and increasing the share of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption. China approaches these new targets from a strong position in renewable energy. In 2010, China was the worlds leading installer of wind turbines and solar thermal generation and was the largest hydropower producer. China has achieved this position through indigenous technology development, technology transfer and strong policy support for local RampD and product development. As shown in Figure 7, Chinas wind sector is now the second largest in the world after the United States, surpassing the capacity additions of Germany, Spain and India. At year-end 2010 China had 35.8 GW of grid-connected wind capacity. This shift to wind also involves a shift in thinking. As one Chinese official put it, the very strong winds in some parts of China were formerly seen as a natural disaster. Now these winds are a very precious resource. 4 Chinas ability to promote investment to its clean energy sector is an important reason for the sectors rapid growth. Approximately US 49 billion was invested in Chinas renewable energy sector in 2010, more than a third of global investment in the sector during that year. Renewables in China also benefitted from a government stimulus (of approximately US 46 billion) that began in 2008 targeted at green investments. footnot id8221582435. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables 2011 Global Status Report./footnote Rise of Renewables in India According to the IEA, Indias power sector has not kept pace with demand only half of the generation capacity expected to come online has been added over the last 15 years. As a result, electricity deficits threaten to restrict the countrys overall economic development. In 2009 and 2010, shortages equalled 10.1 of electricity supply and more than 15 GW of peak capacity. 6 In an effort to modernize its electricity grid and reduce dependency on coal-fired power plants, India has instituted a number of policies that promote renewable energy. As stated in Leena Srivastavas contribution, Economic Growth and the Energy Sector in India: Several new initiatives bode well for establishing the technical, human and institutional capacities needed for a rapid expansion of renewable energy sources. These include introducing renewable purchase obligations (solar and non-solar) for distribution utilities, and scaling them up over time trading renewable energy certificates on power exchanges and setting an ambitious target to develop 20,000 megawatts (MW) of new solar generating capacity by 2022, over and above existing incentives for wind power. In 2009 renewables share of Indias electricity generation reached 14, exceeding the 10 target for 2012. Most of Indias new, grid-connected renewable power capacity came from wind in 2010. However, biomass, small hydropower and solar capacity also contributed to gains in Indias renewable energy portfolio. India added nearly 2.3 GW of wind capacity in 2010, making it the third largest market in the world after China and the United States. Indias installed wind capacity of 13 GW ranks fifth in the world. 7 The Indian economy is reaping the benefits of this trend as Indian manufacturers of wind products expand. Recent investments in Indias wind sector supply chain include new turbine assembly plants, platforms, and local component manufacturing for towers and blades. These manufacturing investments seek to capitalize on Indias currently favourable regulatory regime for renewable energy, such as feed-in tariffs (FIT), state and renewable portfolio obligations and renewable energy certificate trading. Tulsi Tanti describes in his contribution, In Focus, how these innovative trading mechanisms help Indias states meet renewable energy targets. India has implemented mechanisms such as Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and wheeling and banking to allow trading among states with excesses and deficiencies. States blessed with abundant natural resources are producing clean and green energy not only to meet their own renewable energy targets and power requirements, but to trade with neighbouring states in the form of RECs. India is also turning to solar power to capitalize on its clear, sunny climate. Indias current solar capacity stands at a mere 140 MW, but officials aim to reach 20,000 MW installed solar capacity by 2020. As a result of increased competitiveness and favourable renewable energy policies, Indias domestic solar manufacturing industry saw new growth in 2010. Although solar usage in India still trails behind Europe, India is benefitting from a drop in the price of solar panels. Additionally, since India offers fewer subsidies than Europe, Indias solar sector is forced to be more competitive, helping to further reduce the cost of producing solar electricity. Historically, the cost of solar has been twice the cost of coal-fired electricity, but the gap is closing and solar rates in India are becoming more competitive with industrial and commercial electricity prices. 8 Clean Energy as a Growing New Sector Promoting sustainable energy can also provide a foundation for future growth and job creation. As Ditlev Engel writes in his contribution, Energy for Sustainable Economic Growth, Greening and growing the economy are equally important, and we must do both. Greening the economy will provide a sustainable basis for long-term, resource-efficient growth. It has the potential to create many new jobs as well as new business models and opportunities. For example, in Germany officials estimate there were 370,000 jobs in the renewable energy sector in 2010, with more than a quarter of those jobs in the wind sector and nearly a third in solar PV. 9 FIT are one of the most widely used policy tools to promote renewable power generation. They are used throughout Europe to promote the renewable energy sector, helping Denmarks wind sector to become a world leader and promoting renewable sources in Germany, which met its 2010 goal of obtaining 12.5 of its energy from renewable sources three years ahead of schedule. FIT provide long-term purchasing contracts between electricity buyers and renewable energy producers, usually based on the cost of generation. As a result, renewable energy producers receive cost-based compensation and price certainty that help finance their investments. However, FIT may be hard to sustain over time because they tend to increase the cost of electricity in the near term, especially for high-cost technologies (such as solar PV). Such cost increases can become more pronounced as renewable energy accounts for a larger share of energy production. Likewise, successful implementation of FIT requires oversight to ensure that they do not lead to windfall profits. Finally, FIT need to be tracked and adjusted according to changes in the market and societys ability to pay, but not so often as to risk undermining investor confidence. Engel argues that citizens are willing to pay the price to green the economy and states that money saved in the next few years by avoiding climate-friendly investments will result in much higher spending later. To encourage green energy development, Engel believes that a stable policy framework should be implemented to encourage private investment and provide incentives. Evidence shows that private investments in green, clean technology or cleantech are rising. According to Stephen Dolezalek in his contribution, Cleantech Innovation and Venture Capital: What Now. Today, more than 15 of venture capital goes into cleantech start-ups. He continues, We believe that cleantech is a long-term investment story, one that will be increasingly interesting over the next 30 years, and one that is still in its infancy. Wind and solar power are experiencing double digit growth rates, as shown in Figure 8. Investment in renewable power and fuels increased 32 from 2009, reaching US 211 billion in 2010. Investments are also growing in the developing world. In 2010, new investment in renewable energy in developing countries topped US 72 billion, exceeding the US 70.5 billion invested in OECD countries. 10 IHS Emerging Energy Research forecasts that cumulative global power generation investment will reach US 5.6 trillion between 2010 and 2025, led by China, which will account for 25 of the total. Renewables will represent 45 of total power generation investments overall. Energy and the Economy in Europe Jean-Marie Chevalier Professor of Economics, Universit de Paris IX Dauphine, France and Vice President, IHS CERA A great number of relationships exist between energy and the European economies: relationships among energy prices, growth, competitiveness and employment and relationships between the structure of the energy industry and energy prices. However, no economic model is able to fully integrate these complexities. Differences among national energy systems contribute to the challenge. However, the 27 countries of the European Union share a common vision of their energy future and use energy scenarios to help identify future challenges. The structure of the energy industry differs across European countries for reasons based on resource endowment, history, culture and past energy policies. Despite some resistance, market liberalization was introduced in many areas that were historically dominated by state-owned, vertically-integrated monopolies. In terms of the energy balance, the share of primary energy consumption varies widely across countries for oil (31-48), natural gas (15-36), coal (3-24) and nuclear (0-38). Similar differences exist across countries for electricity generation. The share of nuclear power in total electricity production is 80 in France between 10-30 in Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain and zero in Italy. Europes main energy priority is to build a single energy market through market liberalization and competition. Achieving this goal involves balancing three core priorities: maintaining economic competitiveness, transitioning to a low-carbon economy and ensuring security of supply. This is what IHS CERA has described as The Energy Trilemma. The transition to a low - carbon economy is more precisely defined in the EUs 2009 energy-climate package that includes the following goals for 2020: reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20 (from their 1990 level), improving energy efficiency by 20 and increasing the share of renewables to 20. The European Trading Scheme, which introduces the first market for CO2, is another partial answer to global warming. Although European nations share a vision on the energy future, the creation of a unified European energy policy is hindered by many conflicting interests among nations. Let us take a few examples. Gas. No European policy exists, except that following the Ukrainian crisis, the development of new gas interconnections was declared a European priority. In reality, national companies and governments negotiate directly with Russia, Algeria or Libya to build new gas lines primarily on a bilateral basis. Shale gas. France has forbidden the development of shale gas, while Poland is accelerating its development. Nuclear energy. Some countries have decided to move away from nuclear (Germany and Belgium), while some others leave the door open (France, Finland, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Poland). In December 2011, the European Commission issued a Roadmap for Moving to a Competitive Low Carbon Economy in 2050. Seven scenarios have been built. Two follow current trends, and five are decarbonization scenarios that aim to reach an 85 reduction in energy-related CO2 emissions by 2050. These five scenarios follow various patterns, including high energy efficiency, diversified supply technologies, high renewable energy sources, delayed Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) and low nuclear. The assumptions of these scenarios have been run through a macro energy system model called PRIMES that models economic growth rates. The scenarios help to identify potential economic challenges including: Economic, technological and geological uncertainties are major barriers to investments, but scenario results show that there are some no regrets options. Finding a way to finance the investments of the future presents a real challenge given the alarming economic and financial outlook: public deficits are huge and commercial banks are under constraints. This is especially true for nuclear, renewable and energy efficiency projects. Costs that reflect prices and tariffs are fundamental for the financing of the energy future. The main tools for building a progressively lower carbon economy are energy efficiency, investments in renewables and new technologies, and better connections between energy markets. These strategies offer great potential for new forms of greener economic growth and job creation. Construction of new energy-efficient buildings and the renovation of existing ones could create or maintain 150,000 to 500,000 direct jobs in the construction sector per year. In the last five years, the renewable energy industry has increased its workforce from 230,000 to 550,000. A 25 reduction in EU emissions could create 1.5 million additional jobs before the end of the decade. Smart grids and clean power plants are also growth enablers. An additional 50 billion of investment in this sector could add 400,000 direct and indirect jobs. Green growth offers opportunities to invent new competitive advantages. Policies that foster entrepreneurial spirit and a clear regulatory framework would help turn this potential into reality. Equitable Access to Energy: A Driver for Jobs, Healthcare and Education Brian Dames Chief Executive, Eskom Holdings SOC Ltd, South Africa Eskom is one of the top 20 utilities in the world by generation capacity. It generates approximately 95 of the electricity used in South Africa and more than 40 of the electricity used in Africa. Eskom operates along the entire electricity value chain. It generates, transmits and distributes electricity to 4.65 million industrial, mining, commercial, agricultural and residential customers and redistributors. Eskoms most important job is to provide an uninterrupted supply of affordable electricity to support economic growth and help the country move towards a cleaner future, thereby improving the quality of life of the people of South Africa. To do this we have to ensure that our company is considered a good investment and a trusted, ethical and well-governed firm, one that is rated highly by all of our stakeholders. Recently Eskom undertook a study to understand and measure its economic, social and environmental contributions to the country. The study achieves a number of important objectives by identifying key impacts areas, creating understanding of these impacts, and accurately measuring them. In particular it provides us with critical insight to improve on our positive impacts and reduce any negative ones. Given the size and scale of our economic, social and environmental footprint, we are shaping South Africas development through six key impact areas: Economic growth engine Employer, job creator and skills developer Impact on local communities Environmental footprint Enabler of South African development through electricity provision Catalyst for change in South Africa While many countries are focusing on domestic energy security and lowering their dependence on carbon-based fuels, many developing countries are struggling to secure sufficient energy to meet basic human needs. In Africa, access to affordable and reliable energy is fundamental to reducing poverty, improving health, increasing productivity, enhancing competitiveness and promoting economic growth. Undoubtedly, the provision of electricity to countries in Africa will not only fulfil their needs but will help them advance towards sustainable development. Energy poverty remains a serious impediment to progress in most parts of the continent. Africa continues to face critical challenges related to its energy sector. These include a lack of access to modern energy services (especially in rural areas), poor infrastructure, low purchasing power, low investments and over-dependence on traditional biomass. Only about one-fifth of the Sub-Saharan population has access to electricity. A recent Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) study estimates that at current trends, fewer than 40 of African countries will reach universal access to electricity by 2050. However, Africa is endowed with vast renewable and non-renewable sources of energy. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) estimates that the continent has the potential to develop 1,750 terawatt hours (TWH) of hydropower and 14,000 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power. It receives abundant solar radiation throughout the year. Recent studies have confirmed the availability of abundant wind energy resources along some coastal and inland areas. These endowments remain largely underutilized. For instance, only 5 of the continents hydropower potential has been exploited the figure for geothermal is 0.6 (UNIDO, 2009). Inadequate power supplies take a heavy toll on the private sector, and the economic costs of outages are substantial. Many African enterprises experience frequent outages, and in many countries backup generators represent a significant proportion of the total installed power capacity. Appropriate, renewable and environmentally sound energy sources and technologies stand as pillars of long-term poverty alleviation and sustainable development strategies. Africa needs to create incentives, institutional structures and regulatory frameworks that will attract investment and encourage the development of clean technology markets. Political will and leadership, with a commitment to clear strategic targets, predictable policy actions and a full mobilization of financing options, are keys to achieving energy access goals efficiently and effectively. Eskom is one of the largest buyers of goods and services in South Africa and directly accounts for approximately 3 of GDP. When considering an economy-wide impact, this contribution is estimated to be more than 7. In addition, Eskom is also a significant employer. Besides the over 40,000 people directly employed, Eskoms suppliers employ an even larger number of people whose jobs are indirectly attributable to the companys activities. In total, a recent study found that Eskom provides direct and indirect employment to over 129,000 people. Counting family members, this means that the company supports over 516,000 South Africans. Through its new build programme to add power stations and power lines, Eskom is contributing to job diversification by creating jobs in manufacturing, construction, business services and other industries. By executing the government-funded electrification programme, we will continue to maximize our socioeconomic contribution by supporting public initiatives to improve education, promote healthcare, create decent work and foster rural development and land reform. We will also further leverage our corporate social investment efforts to provide sustainable electricity solutions, promote economic development and improve the quality of life for the people of South Africa and the region. Cleantech Innovation and Venture Capital: What Now Stephan Dolezalek Managing Director and CleanTech Group Leader, VantagePoint Capital Partners, USA The first decade of the 21st century brought a major wave of investment in clean technologies. As of 2000, less than 1 of innovation finance was going into energy, water and materials-related investments. Today, more than 15 of venture capital goes into cleantech start-ups. More than US 40 billion of private venture capital has been invested in cleantech since 2002, with the annual number of cleantech deals climbing steadily and more than 1,400 new venture-backed private companies launched. As we enter the second decade of cleantech venture capital investing, what is ahead for the innovation ecosystem Some argue that cleantech is not a good destination for venture capital and that the first wave has represented nothing but a bubble. According to this point of view, investors are pulling back in light of uncertain policy support for renewable energy, especially in the United States. In addition, growing austerity measures in both the United States and Europe limit opportunities for cross-sector collaboration on financing. However, we believe that cleantech is a long-term investment story, one that will be increasingly interesting over the next 30 years, and one that is still in its infancy. The prospects for cleantech venture investing today should be compared to that of information technology in 1985 or biotechnology in 1990 a mere ten years into the process of active venture financing and prior to their investment heydays. The personal computing industry came on the scene with the launch of the first Apple home computer in 1977, and PC shipments grew from 48,000 in 1977, to 125 million by 2001, and to 350 million by 2010. In the early days, PC manufacturers proliferated yet where are companies like Wang, Amiga, Atari, Commodore, Compaq today Will history repeat itself with a decimation of the innovators of the solar module, followed by 7,000-fold growth over 30 years for those panels in the market The reality is that we are still early in the process of growing the first set of major cleantech companies, and we are only beginning to see who the real winners in cleantech might be. Further, in the case of PCs, the steepest growth rates ultimately came in the software, networks, Internet and cloud-based software that they spawned. Will the same be true of the systems that control and manage distributed energy and the grid Although the second half of 2011 brought significant volatility and challenges to the cleantech innovation ecosystem, those of us who make a living investing in the innovation economy have become used to these innovation cycles. Investments in biotechnology took an almost 5-year tailspin in the late 1980s (leading most investors to walk away from the sector) before turning the corner into a 15-year upward trend. Similarly, investors caught up in the late 1990s boom of Internet and data communications stocks were dismissed in 2001, only to see those sectors rebound to the point where there is more frenzy around certain Internet stocks now than in 1999. This is probably a good time for cleantech investors to contemplate the advice of Warren Buffet: Be bold when others are fearful and fearful when others are bold. In that regard, now is an excellent time to have access to unallocated cash, as good value is obtainable and good times indeed lie ahead. The lessons of history are not lost on one very important group of currently cash-rich players the worlds leading global corporations. Perhaps it is because these companies feel most acutely and directly the impact of growing price increases and volatility for key resource inputs, transport fuels and energy sources. Or perhaps they wish to avoid the mistakes of their predecessors in the computing, communications and life sciences industries that failed to embrace the new and became as forgotten as the names of many of the early PC companies. According to the Cleantech Group LLC, corporate investment into and acquisitions of cleantech companies have risen dramatically. In the last five years, annual cleantech mergers and acquisitions have run between US15 and US25 billion per year as of the third quarter of 2011, the number already exceeded US 40 billion for the year. On the investment side, corporations put an estimated US 200 million into venture-backed cleantech companies in 2005 during the first three quarters of 2011, they had already invested more than US 1.3 billion. Moreover, none of these dollar amounts capture the growing numbers of partnerships being formed between large corporations and emerging cleantech start-ups. The message seems clear: cleantech innovation and investment has only just begun, and leading global corporations in particular are increasingly taking up the mantle to drive this transformation wave forward, as it is essential to their continued survival and success in a resource-constrained world. Energy for Sustainable Economic Growth Ditlev Engel President and Chief Executive Officer, Vestas Wind Systems, Denmark Managing resources for truly sustainable economic growth is rapidly becoming one of this centurys greatest imperatives and opportunities. Green growth is a matter of making our societies more sustainable while still compatible with a modern way of living. Properly managed and supported, it also results in substantial job-creation opportunities. If world leaders are serious about generating green growth and the jobs that go with it as well as ensuring energy security for individual nations and conserving the environment they need to adopt, with urgency, a broad set of new policies and measures. Simply stated, policy-makers must strike a new balance between incentives and disincentives for investment that indisputably favours green growth. At the November 2011 G20 Business Summit in Cannes, I had the honour of co-chairing the working group on green growth and presenting its recommendations to an audience that included Mexican President Felipe Caldern. Our group, which included representatives from a diverse cross section of companies such as Alstom, Robert Bosch, CEMEX, Repsol, Samsung and Vestas, made four compelling recommendations that we believe would create a new balance in favour of green growth: Allow free trade in environmental goods and services Achieve a robust price for carbon End fossil fuel subsidies Dramatically scale up support for green technology development Green growth is not some new-age philosophy. Nor is it a hidden agenda for increased regulation in the name of environmental security. Rather, it is a practical proposition to harness the market economy for a transformational growth agenda that explicitly accounts for natural resource capital and corrects for environmental externalities. Greening and growing the economy are equally important, and we must do both. Greening the economy will provide a sustainable basis for long-term, resource-efficient growth. It has the potential to create many new jobs as well as new business models and opportunities, in much the same way as the transcontinental railroad, the interstate highway system and the Internet created their own economic transformations in the global economy. Even though we are facing a global economic slowdown and financial crisis, policy-makers should accelerate the implementation of policies that we know will work. The maintenance of a long-term, stable policy framework is essential to encourage industry to make the necessary investments and create urgently needed green economy employment. Postponing green investments equals postponing the economic recovery. According to the IEAs World Energy Outlook 2011, For every US 1 of investment avoided in the power sector before 2020, an additional US 4.30 would need to be spent after 2020 to compensate for the increased emissions. Indeed, delaying action is a false economy. Money saved in the next few years by avoiding climate-friendly investments will result in much higher spending later. But let us be clear: this is a two-way street. Governments need to shift the balance of incentives to favour green investments. And with the right policy frameworks, business will take the risks, make the investments and create the jobs. Notable progress has been made on some fronts in some markets and we applaud that. We all recognize, however, that we are not going fast enough. Interestingly, its not just business leaders making these recommendations or coming to these conclusions. The public also supports going green. We know that consumers want more renewable energy a fact confirmed by recent surveys from TNS Gallup and the European Union. The TNS Gallup survey, which Vestas sponsored, polled 31,000 people in 26 countries. Of those, 90 want more renewable energy 79 have a favourable view of brands produced with wind energy and 50 would pay extra for products based on renewable energy. In a recently released Eurobarometer poll, 89 of Europeans consider climate change a serious problem, with 68 calling it a very serious problem even worse than the current economic crisis. These data confirm that citizens and voters support going green. This is critically important because to succeed, the green growth agenda must be anchored in the purchasing and investment decisions of individual private and business consumers. Policy-makers should not be afraid of making ambitious investments in renewable energy. Voters will support their actions. Energy: Fuelling South Koreas Transformation Han Seung-soo former Prime Minister, South Korea Energy empowers growth. The meteoric rise of the Korean economy since the 1960s has transformed the nation into a high - tech industrialized economic power that sits among the trillion dollar club of world economies. Today Korea has cemented itself as one of the worlds 15 largest economies. Energy has been at the core of this development. Koreas growth has been propelled by the development of industries that are extremely energy-intensive, such as shipbuilding, automobiles, steel and petrochemicals. Unsurprisingly, the upward trajectory of the nations GDP growth has been matched by an equally steep rise in energy consumption. Koreas total primary energy supply stood at 43.9 million tons of oil equivalent (toe) in 1980, a figure that increased more than fivefold to 243.3 million toe in 2009, making Korea the ninth largest energy - consuming country in the world. Annual consumption per capita has also increased dramatically, from 1.1 toe in 1980 to 5.0 toe in 2008. However, Koreas indigenous energy resource is limited to a negligible supply of low-quality anthracite, making it highly dependent on foreign sources of energy. As of 2008, Korea ranked fifth, third and second among the worlds top importers of crude oil, coal and liquefied natural gas, respectively. In total, 96.4 of Koreas energy is imported at a cost of US 91.2 billion, or 28 of total imports in 2008. Although energy has made an invaluable contribution to the economy, Koreas dependency on imports, which are often subject to external shocks, means that energy independence remains an important challenge. Unfortunately, Koreas fossil-fuel oriented economic structure (84.2 of energy consumption was derived from fossil fuels in 2009) has also led to increasing concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG), which is a key contributor to global climate change. For a country that is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, this reality generates some uneasiness. In addition to energy and climate challenges, Korea is faced with a slowing economy that is highly exposed to global shocks and that has failed to generate adequate employment. Green growth was promulgated as Koreas new national vision in 2008 in an effort to tackle these multifaceted challenges. Green growth is a new, revolutionary development paradigm based on the underlying principle that economic growth can be achieved in parallel with climatic and environmental sustainability objectives. It reorients the traditionally-held assumption that a dichotomy exists between the economy and the environment. Through innovative ideas and investments in new, advanced technologies, green growth transforms the climate, energy and financial crises into opportunities for renewed, sustainable growth. Introduced in early 2009 to put the new national vision of low carbon green growth into policy action, the Green New Deal represents an amalgam of short-term fiscal stimulus with long-term strategies that will allocate roughly US 38.1 billion from 2009 to 2012 to engender green growth. Institutional and legal frameworks to coordinate and enforce green growth policies were established through the Presidential Committee on Green Growth and the Framework Act on Low Carbon Green Growth enacted by the Korean National Assembly, which dictated a 30 reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 relative to business-as - usual levels. Under its First Five-Year Green Growth Plan (2009 to 2013), Korea is investing 2 of its GDP towards green growth-related RampD. The promise of green growth is becoming evident in the energy sector. Seventeen new engines of growth have been identified. Chief among them are green technologies, including renewable and low-carbon energy, energy-saving technologies, smart grids, LED applications and more. Though renewables currently supply only 2.5 of Koreas primary energy, the target is to reach 11 by 2030. Bolstered by effective regulations and incentives, including feed-in-tariffs, renewable energy is making rapid strides, particularly in solar PV and wind. Energy generation from solar PV increased nearly 40 times and wind generation fivefold from 2005 to 2009. Fuel cells, which arose as an electricity source in 2005, had increased their generating capacity tenfold by 2009. Private investment for renewable technologies was expected to reach US 3.6 billion in 2010. Furthermore, the number of manufacturing companies in renewables increased from 41 in 2004 to 146 in 2009, and the number of employees increased from 689 to 9,151 over the same period. Exports of renewables increased from US 65 million in 2004 to US 2 billion in 2009, and solar PV and wind are expected to continue to play a key role. In a best case scenario, smart grid-related products will yield an annual increase of 50,000 jobs, US 67 billion increase in domestic demand and US 44.5 billion in exports by 2030. As Korea continues its endeavour to become a leading green growth nation, the energy sector will remain a cornerstone of the economy. Importantly, the domestically produced, low-carbon, green energy engines that drive growth today will allow the nation to simultaneously enhance its energy independence and tackle climate change, enabling a more sustainable, greener future for Korea. Providing Sufficient Energy to Meet Chinas Development Requirements Lin Boqiang Director, China Center for Energy Economic Research, Xiamen University, China As the largest energy consumer in the world, China accounts for roughly 20 of global demand. Although per capita energy consumption by Chinas vast population is relatively low, the country is currently in an industrialization and urbanization development stage that requires a large amount of energy to support economic growth and development. The energy sector has contributed substantially to Chinas economic growth through direct and indirect job creation and tax revenues. Between 1980 and 2009, 10 of Chinas GDP growth was fuelled by approximately 6 growth in primary energy consumption and more than 9 growth in electricity consumption. Chinas rapid economic growth has generated more demand for energy, resulting in lower energy efficiency and higher rates of pollution emissions. Despite government efforts to lower energy consumption at the central and local levels, those efforts have had little effect on overall energy consumption. Energy security concerns, energy scarcity, high energy costs and negative environmental externalities may present challenges to Chinas ability to continue along a path of sustainable economic growth. Although oil is at the forefront of Chinas energy security concerns, we are facing increasing demand growth for all fossil fuels. Chinas oil consumption increased by about 7 per year over the past decade, leading to a greater dependence on foreign oil. China depended on foreign markets for approximately 55 of oil consumed in 2010. With increasing demand growth for oil, we expect a 2 to 3 annual increase in foreign dependence, which could possibly reach 70 by 2017. In addition, Chinas dependence on foreign gas, currently 13, is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years. Until recently, China was a net exporter of coal, but in 2010 it imported over 150 million tonnes and that figure is expected to rise. As Chinas population expands, future energy demand will increase incrementally. China may reach a point when international markets can no longer meet our demand for energy, resulting in drastically higher prices for imported energy that could hurt economic growth. The cost of energy is a real concern in all developing countries, including China. Although rapid economic growth requires a sufficient supply of cheap energy, we must also balance high energy use with the mitigation of subsequent environmental effects. What steps must China take to maximize the energy industrys contribution to the economy while addressing the obstacles it faces Given its resource constraints, Chinas energy strategy must focus on energy conservation. The government is planning to control domestic energy consumption by implementing a more energy efficient production structure. However, continued urbanization will require large quantities of cement and steel, and making changes to the production structure will be difficult. Chinas urbanization rate was about 48 in 2010 and is expected to increase to 62 by 2020. That means a net addition of 300 million people to cities, a figure roughly equal to that of the entire US population. We estimate that energy consumption of Chinas urban citizens is almost four times higher than that of rural residents. China should take urbanization as an opportunity to guide its citizens toward more energy efficient lifestyles. Additionally, China will need to develop clean energy alternatives using a least-cost approach that balances sustainable growth priorities without hindering economic development. With respect to energy prices, government subsidies counteract some of the resource constraints that have arisen from rapid economic growth. However, the governments effort to keep energy costs low in prior years has made it difficult to raise electricity tariffs, conserve energy and develop clean energy alternatives. In the long term, the Chinese government will need to reform its energy pricing system and redesign energy subsidies. China will implement major strategic changes during its 12th Five Year Plan (12FYP) from 2011 to 2017. In this plan, the government set targets for controlling total energy consumption and improving energy intensity and carbon intensity. Specifically, the government intends to limit total primary energy consumption to less than 4.2 billion tons of standard coal equivalent and reduce energy intensity by 16 and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 17. Moreover, the plan seeks to increase the proportion of non-fossil fuels in primary energy consumption to 11.4. During the 12FYP, China will continue to reform energy resource taxes and environmental taxes to improve the efficiency of resource exploitation and utilization, promote energy conservation and reduce emissions. To maintain its current path of industrialization and urbanization, China must continue to balance rapid growth and energy efficiency through energy policy reforms. Given the large role the Chinese market plays in the global economy, Chinas energy policy will inevitably impact the international energy market. Economic Growth and the Energy Sector in India Leena Srivastava Executive Director, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India India is being hailed as an emerging economic superpower with its average growth rate of about 8 per annum, even during the financial crisis years of 2009 to 2011. If it is able to sustain this growth rate for the next 20 years, it will need to quadruple its power generating capacity and increase its supply of hydrocarbon resources sixfold, assuming modest improvements in energy efficiency. This would also translate into huge import dependencies of approximately 90 for oil and over 60 for natural gas and coal. The associated investments in port infrastructure and logistics would also be massive. But let us look first at the scenario today. India is experiencing a rude awakening to the realities of its energy challenge our abundant coal resources seem to have evaporated due to land constraints, inaccessibility, poor resource quality and poor economics. Indias civil nuclear cooperation deal will yield some benefit, but with considerable delays. It will also be limited because of intense public opposition to nuclear energy and the growing debate that has ensued. The promise of natural gas has also failed to fulfil expectations. However, natural gas may still help relieve some of Indias energy security concerns if well managed. Hydropower resources could provide much needed access to stable, low-cost electricity, especially if we can tap into the resources of neighbouring countries Bhutan and Nepal. Accordingly, India has taken several measures to improve the longer-term prospects of fuelling its economic growth. It has earnestly sought out energy efficiency improvements using a mechanism called Perform, Achieve and Trade that combines regulatory and market structures to transform industry energy performance in a relatively short period of time. The rating and labelling of appliances, together with incentives, will go a long way toward reducing household consumption of energy. The Green Buildings and Solar Cities initiatives are also off to a good start, paving the way for more stringent performance parameters in the years to come. Central funds are also supporting city governments in their efforts to come up with more efficient and environmentally friendly integrated transport solutions. Several new initiatives bode well for establishing the technical, human and institutional capacities needed for a rapid expansion of renewable energy sources. These include introducing renewable purchase obligations (solar and non-solar) for distribution utilities, and scaling them up over time trading renewable energy certificates on power exchanges and setting an ambitious target to develop 20,000 megawatts (MW) of new solar generating capacity by 2022, over and above existing incentives for wind power. On the other hand, despite their importance, initiatives addressing conventional forms of energy are not yielding the same encouraging results. The reform programme in the electricity sector has ground to a halt. This includes the unbundling reforms aimed at creating greater private sector participation. Private sector participation in electricity generation also has suffered due to the financial crisis and the difficulties associated with land acquisition and rehabilitation. Paradoxically, the need to rapidly expand generating capacity opened the doors to the private sector, but it also raised concerns about the potential social impact of energy infrastructure development. Back to the future, alternative scenarios developed by TERI to explore low-carbon pathways for India, emphasize the significant contribution of energy efficiency and the huge investments that would need to be made in renewable energy. However, even a convergence scenario aiming at two tons per capita of carbon by 2030 would seem infeasible unless a number of boundary conditions are relaxed. The share of coal and oil could still be as high as 65 in Indias energy mix, albeit lower than the 90 scenario referenced earlier. The more ambitious climate mitigation scenarios needed in the context of todays science would require a complete transformation of the energy system. This would include a significant expansion of the countrys nuclear capacity, an astounding shift to renewable energy and/or the use of carbon capture and storage technologies, assuming that these become technologically and economically feasible and acceptable. In Focus Tulsi R. Tanti Chairman and Managing Director, Suzlon Group, India A little perspective, like a little humor, goes a long way. Allen Klein, American businessman, talent agent and record label executive The globe makes a very pretty picture countries of different shapes and sizes fitting together perfectly, providing a bird eyes view of our Earth. However, that perspective is difficult to maintain when actually living in your small corner of the magnificent whole. My country, India, has a population of over 1 billion people, each person with a certain standard of living. To meet the needs of its people, the country must produce a large amount of energy from very limited resources raising concerns that are funnelled down to states, cities, towns and villages. At the local level, concerns about providing ample energy to sustain living standards may seem unwieldy. However, by broadening our perspective, we see that the Earth is a self-sustaining unit comprised of many smaller entities, flawlessly assembled. Consider this: total world energy consumption today averages 15 terawatts a year. Global wind energy potential alone is estimated to be 72 terawatts nearly five times the energy we need today. If we judiciously used all the different energy sources available to us, we would have excesses that would never run out. Naysayers may note that despite this pretty picture, resource abundance is not distributed evenly around the world some countries have richer sources of energy than others. Wars have been fought on this basic premise. However, there is opportunity in this challenge, one which India has successfully transformed into an opportunity. India is a large country, its territory encompassing almost every type of geographical terrain deserts, mountains, oceans and plateaus. From Kashmir to Kanyakumari, we have states of every shape and size that are endowed with different types and unequal amounts of energy resources. However, as a country committed to fighting climate change, we enforce renewable energy targets not just at the national level, but also at the state level. Consequently, a state with limited renewable energy resources would be at an obvious disadvantage, right Not so. India has implemented mechanisms such as Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and wheeling and banking to allow trading among states with excesses and deficiencies. States blessed with abundant natural resources are producing clean and green energy not only to meet their own renewable energy targets and power requirements, but to trade with neighbouring states in the form of RECs. The cost of a REC is determined by the market because the mechanism operates in a free market environment. Wheeling and banking allows private industries to either wheel the energy produced by clean technologies for their own use at any point on the grid or bank the surplus for later use. These very simple yet innovative mechanisms are helping India meet its renewable energy targets and adapt to a rapidly changing environment. Moving forward, we also need to broaden our perspective and see the country as part of a larger whole. We have been trading conventional fuels on the global marketplace for centuries perhaps now it is time to include renewables in the mix. Given the scale of the challenges we face today in meeting our energy needs, we must turn to further innovation. The threat of climate change spares no one every corner of this earth will be affected. Even if you try to protect only your corner of the world, your neighbours may make that impossible. Your lush green corner will not be well protected if other areas of the world continue to pollute. Look at the globe on your table. Our aim is to protect the Earth as a whole for generations to come. To do this, we must begin sharing, trading and innovating around the concept of green energy. We have what we need to make this a reality Mother Nature has made sure of that. All we need now is a change of perspective to focus on what is truly important. Benefits and Challenges of Modernizing the Ukrainian Power Sector Maxim Timchenko Chairman of the Executive Board and Chief Executive Officer, DTEK, Ukraine At DTEK we understand that cleaner, affordable and securely supplied energy is essential for unimpeded economic development. However, the Ukrainian power sector cannot be examined outside of the European context because it is tied to the European market through its physical proximity to the European Union and its membership in the European Energy Community (ECC). Regarding infrastructure, a large area of western Ukraine, that which borders EU member states Poland, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania, is already considered part of the EU grid, ENTSO-E. Ukraines accession to the ECC in early 2011 bears the promise of solidifying its connection to the EU and enhancing security of supply in the European market. As a result, we are faced with the necessity of undertaking sweeping reforms aimed at making the Ukrainian energy sector function in full accordance with EU norms. But is the Ukrainian energy sector ready for that To fully realize the benefits of increased demand for its energy, the Ukrainian power sector needs to be modernized. To ensure sustainable growth of the economy, the power sector needs to increase its fuel efficiency and the output of its current capacity, while adhering to EU environmental standards. We project that by 2017, Ukraine will no longer be able to meet rapidly increasing demand with its current capacity. We estimate that the Ukrainian power sector will need to invest 58 billion by 2030 to upgrade its current capacity and construct new capacity. Many years of neglect and a lack of funding resulted in a worrisome state of affairs for the Ukrainian energy sector. Ukraines economy faces high energy-intensity levels (its fuel consumption levels are 30 higher than in Europe), and the power sector relies on equipment commissioned several decades ago. Specifically, 72.5 of our thermal power plants have reached the end of their permitted service life, and units over 40 years old account for 38 of total capacity (compared to 22 in Europe). Under these circumstances, modernization is not just a matter of profitability, but rather one of safeguarding the energy independence of the country. Ukraine faces other challenges, such as limiting our environmental footprint and mitigating the ecological risks intrinsic to the power sector. Coal fuels 96 of Ukrainian thermal power generation, with natural gas accounting for the rest. One can dislike coal as a fuel for generating electricity, but it is undeniable that coal will remain the backbone of the energy mix in many countries for years to come. Investment-driven modernization is the only possible and sustainable answer to our environmental challenges. Now that Ukraine is a part of the ECC, we face tough requirements set by EU Directive 2001/80/EC to reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter by 17, 8 and 24 times, respectively. To comply with these environmental standards, the power generation sector requires investments of approximately 6.5 billion. Ensuring these investments are made wisely and sustainably by the power sector will be by far the biggest contribution to Ukraines economic wellbeing and development. Given the current economic climate, only the private sector will be ready to mobilize and invest the funds needed in this sector. We consider the Ukrainian governments recent announcement to privatize regional power generation and distribution companies a step in the right direction. Reforms designed to reorganize the countrys energy sector are critical to attract potential investors. Introduced by the Ukrainian government in 2010, they aim to ensure the transparency, consistency, and predictability of regulatory policies while introducing economically justified tariffs. Household power tariffs in Ukraine are currently among the lowest in Europe. Bringing our tariffs to an economically justified level will require a fourfold rate increase. Moving forward, we will be faced with some uneasy questions: Will consumers be willing to pay for more reliable, cleaner energy What kind of social contract is needed to resolve the inherent conflicts among the key elements of energys golden formula: sustainability, competition and security Through our business practices, we try to foster the idea that our industry is not only about making profits but also about benefitting local communities. The sustainability of our company is intrinsically linked to how we are perceived by the communities we serve. While the safety and wellbeing of our employees remains at the heart of our corporate social responsibility model, we are proud that local communities and much wider layers of society benefit directly from our strategically planned social role. For instance, improvements to a communitys energy supply promotes positive impacts in the health and education sectors, which in turn creates better business conditions that can lead to local economic development and improvements in the quality of life. Conclusions The continuing economic slump puts a focus on the role of energy in the economy. The energy industry fuels the economy, and steady availability of reasonably priced energy is a crucial to economic growth. Peter Voser reminds us of the importance of the sector. The economic progress of past decades has seen hundreds of millions of people enjoy major improvements in their material well-being, and these changes have been particularly noteworthy in the emerging economies, he wrote. We all understand how globalization and market liberalization have underpinned these developments, but we must not lose sight of the crucial enabling role played by the energy sector. In countries with energy resources, the industry can be an engine of economic recovery and development. Energy demand and prices have been resilient throughout the recession due to growing needs in the developing world. Although the sector directly employs a modest number of people compared to its contribution to GDP, its deep supply chains and highly paid, highly skilled workers make strong contributions to economic growth. Countries rich in traditional energy resources can choose development strategies that will help them maximize the benefits of resource extraction. Stable tax regimes bring some measure of certainty to potential investors. Strong governance can help ensure that the benefits of resource development are fairly shared with citizens. Development of sectors related to resource extraction, such as construction, transportation or financial services, can extend the benefits to other parts of the economy. Notable advances in conventional energy production including the rapid growth of offshore and, more recently, shale gas and tight oil are creating new possibilities that may be very important for national economies. Advances in renewable technologies, such as offshore wind and solar PV, are also adding jobs and boosting economic growth. Regardless of their energy endowments, countries are turning to renewables and green technology as sound investments. Particularly in developing nations, reliable and affordable energy supplies are crucial. Unreliable electricity takes a heavy toll on GDP. Bridging the supply gap offers a major development opportunity. Investment and innovation clusters around renewable energy are bringing about advances in related technologies and providing solutions to environmental and energy security problems. Policy designed to maximize jobs in the energy sector will not necessarily maximize employment in the economy as a whole. Energy is the lifeblood of the economy and a crucial input for nearly every good and service. Affordable and stable energy prices are a boon for economic growth. Focusing only on creating more jobs in the energy sector may be misguided if it reduces efficiency in the sector and raises energy prices. Factors such as energy productivity, cost and job creation must be analysed as a whole to produce the best effect. Ditlev Engel sums up the challenge in this way, Managing resources for truly sustainable economic growth is rapidly becoming one of this centurys greatest imperatives and opportunities. About The Contributors About the World Economic Forum The World Economic Forum is an independent international organization committed to improving the state of the world by engaging leaders in partnerships to shape global, regional and industry agendas. Incorporated as a foundation in 1971 and based in Geneva, Switzerland, the World Economic Forum is impartial and not-for-profit it is tied to no political, partisan or national interests. (weforum. org) About IHS CERA IHS Cambridge Energy Research Associates, Inc. (IHS CERA) is a leading advisor to energy companies, governments, financial institutions, technology providers and consumers. IHS CERA delivers critical knowledge and independent objective analysis on energy markets, geopolitics, industry trends and strategy. (cera) IHS CERAs expertise covers all major energy sectors oil and refined products, natural gas, coal, electric power and renewables, as well as energy demand, climate and efficiency on a global and regional basis. IHS CERAs team of experts is headed by Daniel Yergin, Chairman, author of The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power . for which he won the Pulitzer Prize, and The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World . IHS is the leading source for the critical information and data on which the upstream oil and gas industry operates worldwide, as well as insight on the global economy, security and the standards under which the worlds industries function. (ihs) About the Energy Industry Partnership The Energy Industry Partnership programme of the World Economic Forum provides CEOs and senior executives of the worlds leading companies and select energy ministers with the opportunity to interact with their peers throughout the year to define and address critical issues facing the industry. Identifying, developing and acting upon these issues reflects the Forums commitment to sustainable social development based on economic progress. The energy community leader for 2011-2012 was Peter Voser, Chief Executive Officer, Royal Dutch Shell. Disclaimer: The views and recommendations of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of all individuals or companies listed below, nor does their participation constitute endorsement for any part of this document. As of 1 January 2012, the members of the Energy Industry Partnership included: ABB Ltd, Applied Materials Inc., Ariston Thermo, BP Plc, Bioenergy Corporation Centrica Plc, IHS CERA, Chevron Corporation The Dow Chemical Company, DTEK/SCM Duke Energy, EnBW, ENI SpA Eskom Holdings Limited Essar Group Exxon Mobil Corporation Fluor Corporation Gamesa Corporacin Tecnolgica SA Gazprom Neft GDF SUEZ SA General Electric Hanwha Solarone Iberdrola Energia JSC RusHydro Kuwait Petroleum Corporation Lukoil Oil Company Mitsubishi Corporation Nexen OAO Tatneft Pemex Petroleos Mexicanos Petroleo Brasileiro SA Petrobras PTT Public Company Reliance Industries Renova Group Rosneft Oil Company Royal Dutch Shell Plc Royal Philips Electronics RWE AG Sasol Limited Saudi Aramco Showa Shell Sekiyu KK Siemens AG SK Group Statoil ASA Suntech Power Holdings Co. Ltd Suzlon Energy Limited Talisman Energy Total Trina Solar Vattenfall AB Vestas Wind Systems A/S. About the Advisory Board The advisory board helps drive the industry partnership to develop analysis, insights and conclusions that fulfil the Forums mission. It helps ensure the quality of industry partnership meetings, reports and projects. The advisory board currently consists of the following select and renowned experts: Fatih Birol, Chief Economist and Head, Economic Analysis Division, International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris Kenneth Rogoff, Thomas D. Cabot Professor of Public Policy and Professor of Economics, Harvard University, USA Leena Srivastava, Executive Director, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India Daniel Yergin, Chairman, IHS CERA, USA Energy for Economic Growth Contributors From IHS CERA Authors Daniel Yergin Samantha Gross Energy for Economic Growth Energy Vision Update 2012 Prepared in Partnership with IHS CERA As the world struggles to emerge from a global financial crisis and its fallout on the real economy, countries are looking for solutions to improve domestic economic performance and put people back to work. The 8220Energy for Economic Growth 8211 Energy Vision Update 20128221 highlights how the energy sector can make a major contribution to economic recovery and future growth. Energy for Economic Growth Daniel Yergin (IHS CERA) and Roberto Bocca (World Economic Forum) present the Energy for Economic Growth Report and the role of energy in boosting economic growth.